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LECTURES  ON  LANGUAGE, 


AS  PARTICULARLY  CONNECTED  WITH 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

DESIGNED  FOR  THE  USE  OF  TEACHERS  AND  ADVANCED 
LEARNERS. 


BY  WM.  S.  BALCH. 


Silence  is  better  than  unmeaning  words. — Pythagoras. 


PROVIDENCE : 
B.  CRANSTON   &  CO. 
1  838. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1838, 

By  B.  Cranston  &  Co. 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Rhode-Island. 


Providence,  Feb.  24,  1838. 

To  Wm.  S.  Balch, 

SiJi— The  undersigned,  in  behalf  of  the  Young  People's  Institute, 
hasten  to  present  to  you  the  following  Resolutions,  together  with 
their  personal  thanks,  for  the  Lectures  you  have  delivered  before 
them,  on  the  Philosophy  of  Language.  The  uncommon  degree  of 
interest,  pleasure  and  profit,  with  which  you  have  been  listened  to, 
is  conclusive  evidence,  that  whoever  possesses  taste  and  talents  to 
comprehend  and  appreciate  the  philosophy  of  language,  which  you 
have  so  successfully  cultivated,  cannot  fail  to  attain  a  powerful  in- 
fluence over  the  minds  of  his  audience.  The  Committee  respect- 
fully request  you  to  favor  them  with  a  copy  of  your  Lectures  for 
the  Press. 

Very  respectfully, 

Your  most  obedient  servants, 

C.  T.  JAMES, 
E.  F.  MILLER, 
H.  L.  WEBSTER. 

Resolved,  That  we  have  been  highly  entertained  and  greatly  in- 
structed by  the  Lectures  of  our  President,  on  the  subject  of  Lan- 
guage ;  that  we  consider  the  principles  he  has  advocated,  immuta- 
bly true,  exceedingly  important,  and  capable  of  an  easy  adoption  in 
the  study  of  that  important  branch  of  human  knowledge. 

Resolved,  That  we  have  long  regretted  the  want  of  a  system  to 
explain  the  grammar  of  our  vernacular  tongue,  on  plain,  rational, 
and  consistent  principles,  in  accoi'dance  with  philosophy  and  truth, 
and  in  a  way  to  be  understood  and  practised  by  children  and  adults. 

Resolved,  That  in  our  opinion,  the  manifold  attempts  which  have 
been  made,  though  doubtless  undertaken  with  the  purest  intentions, 
to  simplify  and  make  easy  existing  systems,  have  failed  entirely  of 
their  object,  and  tended  only  to  perplex,  rather  than  enlighten 
learners. 


iv 


Resolved,  That  in  our  belief,  the  publication  of  these  Lectures 
would  meet  the  wants  of  the  community;  and  throw  a  flood  of  light 
upon  this  hitherto  dark,  and  intricate,  and  yet  exceedingly  in- 
teresting department  of  a  common  education,  and  thus  prove  of  im- 
mense service  to  the  present  and  future  generations. 

Resolved,  That  Messrs.  Charles  T.  James,  Edward  F.  Miller, 
and  Heniy  L.  Webster,  be  a  Committee  to  v/ait  on  Rev.  AVilliam 
S.  Balch,  and  request  the  publication  of  his  very  interesting  Course 
of  Lectures  before  this  Institute. 

Phovidence,  Feb.  25,  1838. 
Messiis.  C.  T.  James,  E.  F.  Miller,  and  H.  L.  Weester  : 

Gentlemen — Your  letter,  together  with  the  Resolutions  accom- 
panying it,  was  duly  and  gratefully  received.  It  gives  me  no  ordi- 
nary degree  of  pleasure  to  know  that  so  deep  an  interest  has  been, 
and  still  is,  felt  by  the  members  of  our  Institute,  as  well  as  the  pub- 
lie  generally,  on  this  important  subject ;  for  it  is  one  which  concerns 
the  happiness  and  welfare  of  oar  whole  community  ;  but  especially 
the  rising  generation. 

The  only  recommendation  of  these  Lectures  is  the  subject  of 
which  they  treat.  They  were  written  in  the  space  of  a  few  weeks, 
and  in  the  midst  of  an  accumulation  of  engagements  which  almost 
forbade  the  attempt.  But  presuming  you  will  make  all  due  allow- 
ances for  whatever  errors  you  may  discover  in  the  style  of  compo- 
sition, and  regard  the  matter  more  than  the  manner,  I  consent  to 
their  publication,  hoping  they  will  be  of  some  service  in  the  great 
cause  of  human  improvement. 

I  am,  gentlemen, 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

Wi\L  S.  BALCH. 


PREFACE. 


There  is  no  subject  so  deeply  interesting  and  important  to 
rational  beings  as  the  knowledge  of  language,  or  one  which 
presents  a  more  direct  and  powerful  claim  upon  all  classes 
in  the  community  ;  for  there  is  no  other  so  closely  interwov- 
en with  all  the  affairs  of  human  life,  social,  moral,  political 
and  religious.  It  forms  a  basis  on  which  depends  a  vast 
portion  of  the  happiness  of  mankind,  and  deserves  the  first 
attention  of  every  philanthropist. 

Great  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  the  common 
method  of  explaining  language,  and  grammar  has  long  been 
considered  a  dry,  uninteresting,  and  tedious  study,  by  nearly 
all  the  teachers  and  scholars  in  the  land.  But  it  is  to  be 
presumed  that  the  fault  in  this  case,  if  there  is  any,  is  to  be 
sought  for  in  the  manner  of  teaching,  rather  than  in  the 
science  itself ;  for  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  suppose  that 
a  subject  which  occupies  the  earliest  attention  of  the  parent, 
which  is  acquired  at  great  expense  of  money,  time,  and 
thought,  and  is  employed  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave,  in 
all  our  waking  hours,  can  possibly  be  dull  or  unimportant, 
if  rightly  explained. 

A* 


VI  PREFACE. 

Children  have  been  required  to  learn  verbal  forms  and 
changes,  to  look  at  the  mere  signs  of  ideas,  instead  of  the 
things  represented  by  them.  The  consequence  has  been 
that  the  whole  subject  has  become  uninteresting  to  all  who 
do  not  possess  a  retentive  verbal  memory.  The  philosophy 
of  language,  the  sublime  principles  on  which  it  depends  for 
its  existence  and  use,  have  not  been  sufficiently  regarded  to 
render  it  delightful  and  profitable. 

The  humble  attempt  here  made  is  designed  to  open  the 
way  for  an  exposition  of  language  on  truly  philosophical 
principles,  which,  when  correctly  explained,  arc  abundantly 
simple  and  extensively  useful.  With  what  success  this  point 
has  been  labored  the  reader  will  determine. 

The  author  claims  not  the  honor  of  entire  originality. 
The  principles  here  advanced  have  been  advocated,  believed, 
and  successfully  practised,  William  S.  Cardell,  Esq.,  a 
bright  star  in  the  firmament  of  American  literature,  reduced 
these  principles  to  a  system,  which  was  taught  with  triumph- 
ant success  by  Daniel  H.  Barnes,  formerly  of  the  New- 
York  High  School,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  teachers 
who  ever  officiated  in  that  high  and  responsible  capacity  in 
our  country.  Both  of  these  gentlemen,  so  eminently  cal- 
culated to  elevate  the  standard  of  education,  were  sum- 
moned from  the  career  of  the  most  active  usefulness,  from 
the  scenes  they  had  labored  to  brighten  and  beautify  by  the 
aid  of  their  transcendant  intellects,  to  unseen  realities  in  the 
world  of  spirits  ;  where  mind  communes  with  mind,  and  soul 


PREFACE.  Vii 

mingles  with  soul,  disenthraled  from  error,  and  embosomed 
in  the  light  and  love  of  the  Great  Parent  Intellect. 

The  author  does  not  pretend  to  give  a  system  of  exposi- 
tion in  this  work  suited  to  the  capacities  of  small  children. 
It  is  designed  for  advanced  scholars,  and  is  introductory  to 
a^ystem  of  grammar  which  he  has  in  preparation,  which 
it  is  humbly  hoped  will  be  of  some  service  in  rendering  easy 
and  correct  the  study  of  our  vernacular  language.  But 
this  book,  it  is  thought,  may  be  successfully  employed  in 
the  instruction  of  the  higher  classes  in  our  schools,  and  will 
be  found  an  efficient  aid  to  teachers  in  inculcating  the  sub- 
lime principles  of  which  it  treats. 

These  Lectures,  as  now  presented  to  the  public,  it 
is  believed,  will  be  found  to  contain  some  important  infor- 
mation by  which  all  may  profit.  The  reader  will  bear  in 
mind  that  they  were  written  for,  and  delivered  before  a  pop- 
ular  audience,  and  published  with  very  little  time  for  modi- 
fication. This  will  be  a  sufficient  apology  for  the  mistakes 
which  may  occur,  and  for  whatever  may  have  the  appear- 
ance of  severity,  irony,  or  pleasantry,  in  the  composition. 

On  the  subject  of  Contractions  much  more  might  be  said. 
But  verbal  criticisms  are  rather  uninteresting  to  a  common 
audience ;  and  hence  the  consideration  of  that  matter  was 
made  more  brief  than  was  at  first  intended.  It  will  how- 
ever be  resumed  and  carried  out  at  length  in  another  work. 
The  hints  given  will  enable  the  student  to  form  a  tolerable 
correct  opinion  of  the  use  of  most  of  those  words  and  phrases, 


viii  PREFACE. 

which  have  long  been  passed  over  with  little  knowledge  of 
their  meaning  or  importance. 

The  author  is  aware  that  the  principles  he  has  advocated 
are  new  and  opposed  to  established  systems  and  the  common 
method  of  inculcation.  But  the  difficulties  acknowledged 
on  all  hands  to  exist,  is  a  sufficient  justification  of  this  hu||^ 
ble  attempt.  He  will  not  be  condemned  for  his  good  inten- 
tions. All  he  asks  is  a  patient  and  candid  examination, 
a  frank  and  honest  approval  of  what  is  true,  and  as  honest  a 
rejection  of  what  is  false.  But  he  hopes  the  reader  will 
avoid  a  rash  and  precipitate  conclusion,  either  for  or  against, 
lest  he  is  compelled  to  do  as  the  author  himself  once  did, 
approve  what  he  had  previously  condemned. 

With  these  remarks  he  enters  the  arena,  and  bares  him- 
self to  receive  the  sentence  of  the  public  voice. 


CONTENTS. 


LECTURE  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  LANGUAGE. 

Study  of  Language  long  considered  difficult. — Its  importance. 
— Errors  in  teaching. — Not  understood  by  Teachers. — At- 
tachment to  old  systems. — Improvement  preferable. — The 
subject  important. — Its  advantages. — Principles  laid  down. 
— Orthography. — Etymology. — Syntax. — Prosody.  12 

LECTURE  II. 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 

General  principles  of  Language. — Business  of  Grammar. — 
Children  are  Philosophers. — Things,  ideas,  and  words. — Ac- 
tions,— Qualities  of  things. — Words  without  ideas. — Gram- 
matical terms  inappropriate. — Principles  of  Language  per- 
manent.— Errors  in  mental  science. — Facts  admit  of  uo 
change. — Complex  ideas. — Ideas  of  qualities. — An  example. 
— New  ideas. — Unknown  words. — Signs  without  tilings  sig- 
nified.— Fixed  laws  regulate  matter  and  mind.  21 

LECTURE  III. 

WRITTEN  AND  SPOKEN  LANGUAGE. 

Principles  never  alter. — They  should  be  knov/n. — Grammar  a 
most  important  branch  of  science. — Spoken  and  written 
Language. — Idea  of  a  thing. — How  expressed. — An  exam- 
ple.— Picture  writing. — An  anecdote. — Ideas  expressed  by 
actions. — Principles  of  spoken  and  written  Language. — Ap- 
ply universally. — Two  examples. — English  language. — For- 
eign words. — Words  in  science. — New  v/ords. — Kow  formed.  35 


X 


CONTENTS. 


LECTURE  IV. 

ON  NOUNS. 

Nouns  defined. — Things. — Qualities  of  matter. — Mind. — Spir- 
itual beings. — Qualities  of  mind. — How  learned. — Imaginary 
things. — Negation. — Names  of  actions. — Proper  nouns. — 
Characteristic  name?. — Proper  nouns  may  become  common.  46' 

LECTURE  V. 

ON  NOUNS  AMD  PRONOUNS. 

Nouns  in  respect  to  persons. — Number. — ^Singular. — Plural. — 
How  formed. — Foreign  plurals. — Proper  names  admit  of 
plurals. — Gender. — No  neuter. — In  figurative  language. — 
Errors. — Position  or  case. — Agents. — Objects. — Possessive 
case  considered. — A  definitive  word. — Pronouns. — One  kind. 
— Originally  nouns. — Specifically  applied.  54 

LECTURE  VL 

ON  ADJECTIVES. 

Definition  of  adjectives. — General  character. — Derivation. — 
How  understood. — Defining  and  describing. — Meaning  chan- 
ges to  suit  the  noun. — Too  numerous. — Derived  froin  noune. 
— Nouns  and  verbs  made  from  adjectives. — Foreign  adjec- 
tives.— A  general  list. — Difficult  to  be  understood. — An  ex- 
ample.— Often  superfluous. — Derived  from  verbs. — Partici- 
ples.— Some  prepositions. — Meaning  unknown. — With. — In. 
—Out.— Of.  68 

LECTURE  VII. 

ON  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives. — How  formed. — The  syllabic  ly. — Formed  fron> 
proper  nouns. — The  apostrophe  and  letter  s. — Derived  from 
pronouns. — Articles. — A  comes  from  an. — //zdefiiiite. — The. 
— Meaning  of  a  and  the. — Murray's  example. — That. — 
What. — "  Pronoun  adjectives." — Mon,  ma. — Degrees  of  com- 
parison.— Secondary  adjectives. — Prepositions  admit  of  com- 
parison. 90 


CONTENTS. 


LECTURE  VIII. 

ON  VERBS. 

Unpleasant  to  expose  error. — Verbs  defined. — Every  thing 
acts. — Actor  and  object. — Laws. — Man. — Animals. — Vege- 
tables.— Minerals. — Neutrality  degrading. — Nobody  can  ex- 
plain a  neuter  verb. — One  kind  of  verbs. — You  must  decide- 
— Importance  of  teaching  children  the  truth. — Active  verbs. 
— Transitive  verbs  false. — Samples. — Neuter  verbs  exam- 
ined.— Sit. — Sleep. — Stand. — Lie. — Opinion  of  Mrs.  W. — 
Anecdote.  1 

LECTURE  IX. 

ON  VERBS. 

Neuter  and  intransitive. — Agents. — Objects. — No  actions  as 
such  can  be  knov^'^n  distinct  from  the  agent. — Imaginary 
actions. — Actions  known  by  their  effects. — Examples. — 
Signs  should  guide  to  things  signified. — Principles  of  action. 
— Power. — Animals. — Vegetables. — Minerals. — All  things 
act. — Magnetic  needle. — Cause. — Explained. — First  Cause. 
— Means. — Illustrated. — Sir  I.  Newton's  example. — These 
principles  must  be  known. — Relative  action. — Anecdote  of 
Gallileo.  1 

LECTURE  X. 

ON  VERBS. 

A  philosophical  axiom. — Manner  of  expressing  action. — Things 
taken  for  granted. — Simple  facts  must  be  known. — Must 
never  deviate  from  the  truth. — Every  cause  will  have  an 
effect. — An  example  of  an  intransitive  verb. — Objects  ex- 
pressed or  implied. — All  language  eliptical. — Intransitive 
verbs  examined.- — I  run. — 1  walk. — To  step. — Birds  fly. — 
It  rains. — The  fire  burns. — The  sun  shines. — To  smile. — 
Eat  and  drink. — Miscellaneous  examples. — Evils  of  false 
teaching. — A  change  is  demanded. — These  principles  apply 
universally. — Their  importance.  I 


xii 


CONTENTS. 


LECTURE  XI. 

ON  VERBS. 

The  verb  to  be, — Compounded  of  different  radical  words. — Am. 
— Defined. — The  name  of  Deity. — Ei. — Is. — Are. — Were, 
WAS. — Be. — A  dialogue. — Examples. — Passive  Verbs  exam^ 
ined. — Cannot  be  in  the  present  tense. — The  past  participle 
is  an  adjective.  181 
LECTURE  XII. 

ON  VERBS. 

Mood. — Indicative. — Imperative. — Infinitive—Former  distinc- 
tions. — Subjunctive  mood. — Time  Past  Present  Fu- 
ture.— The  future  explained. — How  formed. — Mr.  Murray's 
distinction  of  time. — Imperfect.— Pluperfect. — Second  fu- 
ture.— How  many  tenses. — Auxiliary  Verbs. — Will. — 
Shall.— May.— Must.— Can.— Do.— Have.  196 

LECTURE  XIII. 


Person  and  number  in  the  agent,  not  in  the  action. — Similarity 
of  agents,  actions,  and  objects. — Verbs  made  from  nouns.— 
Irregular  verbs. — Some  examples. — Regular  Verbs. — Ed. — 
Ing. — Conjugation  of  verbs. — To  love. — To  have. — To  be. — 
The  uidicative  mood  varied. — A  whole  sentence  may  be 
agent  or  object. — Imperative,  mood. — Infinitive  mood. — Is 
always  future.  215 
LECTURE  XIV. 

ON  CONTRACTIONS. 

A  temporary  expedient. — ^Words  not  understood. — All  words 
must  have  a  meaning. — Their  formation. — Changes  of  mean- 
ing and  form. — Should  be  observed. — Adverbs. — Ending  in 

ly. — Examples. — Ago. — Astray. — Awake. — Asleep  Then, 

when. — There,  where,  here. — While,  till. — Whether,  togeth- 
er.— Ever,  never,  whenever,  etc.  ^Oft. — Hence. — Perhaps. 

— Not. —  Or. —  Nor. —  Than. —  As. —  So.  —  Conjunctions. — 
Rule  18.  If.— But.— Tho.^Yet.  234 


LECTURES  ON  LANGUAGE. 


LECTURE  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  LANGUAGE. 

Study  of  Language  long  considered  difficult. — Its  importance. — 
Errors  in  teaching. — Not  understood  by  Teachers. — Attachment 
to  old  systems. — Improvement  preferable. — The  subject  import- 
ant.— Its  advantages. — Principles  laid  down. — Orthography. — 
Etymology. — Syntax. — Prosody. 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen, 

It  is  proposed  to  commence,  this  evening,  a  course  of 
Lectures  on  the  Grammar  of  the  English  Language.  I  am 
aware  of  the  difficulties  attending  this  subject,  occasioned 
not  so  much  by  any  fault  in  itself,  as  by  the  thousand  and 
one  methods  adopted  to  teach  it,  the  multiplicity  of  books 
pretending  to  ^'  simplify"  it,  and  the  vast  contrariety  of  opin- 
ion entertained  by  those  who  profess  to  be  its  masters.  By 
many  it  has  been  considered  a  needless  affair,  an  unneces- 
sary appendage  to  a  common  education  ;  by  others,  alto- 
gether beyond  the  reach  of  common  capacities  ;  and  by  all, 
cold,  lifeless,  and  uninteresting,  full  of  doubts  and  perplexi- 
ties, where  the  wisest  have  differed,  and  the  firmest  often 
changed  opinions. 

B 


14 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


All  this  difficulty  originates,  I  apprehend,  in  the  wrong 
view  that  is  taken  of  the  subject.  The  most  beautiful  land- 
scape may  appear  at  great  disadvantage,  if  viewed  from  an 
unfavorable  position.  I  would  be  slow  to  believe  that  the 
means  on  which  depends  the  whole  business  of  the  commu- 
nity, the  study  of  the  sciences,  all  improvement  upon  the 
past,  the  history  of  all  nations  in  all  ages  of  the  world,  social 
intercourse,  oral  or  written,  and,  in  a  great  measure,  the 
knowledge  of  God,  and  the  hopes  of  immortality,  can  be 
either  unworthy  of  study,  or,  if  rightly  explained,  uninter- 
esting  in  the  acquisition.  In  fact,  on  the  principles  I  am 
about  to  advocate,  I  have  seen  the  deepest  interest  mani- 
fested, from  the  small  child  to  the  grey-headed  sire,  from 
the  mere  novice  to  the  statesman  and  philosopher,  and  all 
alike  seemed  to  be  edified  and  improved  by  the  attention  be- 
stowed upon  the  subject. 

I  confess,  however,  that  with  the  mention  of  grammar,  an 
association  of  ideas  are  called  up  by  no  means  agreeable. 
The  mind  involuntarily  reverts  to  the  days  of  childhood, 
when  we  were  compelled,  at  the  risk  of  our  bodily  safety, 
to  commit  to  memory  a  set  of  arbitrary  rules,  which  we 
could  neither  understand  nor  apply  in  the  correct  use  of  lan- 
guage. Formerly  it  was  never  dreamed  that  grammar  de- 
pended on  any  higher  authority  than  the  books  put  into  our 
hands.  And  learners  were  not  only  dissuaded,  but  strictly 
forbidden  to  go  beyond  the  limits  set  them  in  the  etymolo- 
gical and  syntactical  rules  of  the  authors  to  whom  they 
were  referred.  If  a  query  ever  arose  in  their  minds,  and 
they  modestly  proposed  a  plain  question  as  to  the  why  and 
wherefore  things  were  thus,  instead  of  giving  an  answer  ac- 
cording to  common  sense,  in  a  way  to  be  understood,  the 
authorities  were  pondered  over,  till  some  rule  or  remark 


ERRORS  IN  TEACHING.  IMPROVEMENT.  15 

could  be  found  which  would  apply,  and  this  settled  the  mat- 
ter with  "proof  as  strong  as  holy  writ."  In  this  way  an 
end  may  be  put  to  the  inquiry  ;  but  the  thinking  mind  will 
hardly  be  satisfied  with  the  mere  opinion  of  another,  who 
has  no  evidence  to  afford,  save  the  undisputed  dignity  of  his 
station,  or  the  authority  of  books.  This  course  is  easily  ac 
counted  for.  Rather  than  expose  his  own  ignorance,  the 
teacher  quotes  the  printed  ignorance  of  others,  thinking,  no 
doubt,  that  folly  and  nonsense  will  appear  better  second- 
handed,  than  fresh  from  his  own  responsibility.  Or  else  on 
the  more  common  score,  that  "  misery  loves  company." 

Teachers  have  not  unfrequently  found  themselves  placed  in 
an  unenviable  position  by  the  honest  inquiries  of  some  think- 
ing urchin,  who  has  demanded  why  "  one  noun  governs  an- 
other in  the  possessive  case,"  as  "master's  slave;"  why 
there  are  more  tenses  than  three  ;  what  is  meant  by  a  neu. 
ter  verb,  which  "  signifies  neither  action  nor  passion  ;"  or 
an  "  intransitive  verb,"  which  expresses  the  highest  possible 
action,  but  terminates  on  no  object ;  a  cause  without  an  ef- 
fect ;  why  that  is  sometimes  a  pronoun,  sometimes  an  ad- 
jective,  and  not  unfrequently  a  conjunction,  &c.  &c.  They 
may  have  succeeded,  by  dint  of  official  authority,  in  silenc- 
ing such  inquiries,  but  they  have  failed  to  give  a  satisfactory 
answer  to  the  questions  proposed. 

Long  received  opinions  may,  in  some  cases,  become  law, 
pleading  no  other  reason  than  antiquity.  But  this  is  an  age 
of  investigation,  which  demands  the  most  lucid  and  unequiv- 
ocal proof  of  the  point  assumed.  The  dogmatism  of  the 
schoolmen  will  no  longer  satisfy.  The  dark  ages  of  men- 
tal servility  are  passing  away.  The  day  light  of  science 
has  long  since  dawned  upon  the  world,  and  the  noon  day  of 
truth,  reason,  and  virtue,  will  ere  long  be  established  on  a 


16 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


firm  and  immutable  basis.  The  human  mind,  left  free  to 
investigate,  will  gradually  advance  onward  in  the  course  of 
knowledge  and  goodness  marked  out  by  the  Creator,  till  it 
attains  to  that  perfection  which  shall  constitute  its  highest 
glory,  its  truest  bliss. 

You  will  perceive,  at  once,  that  our  inquiries  thro  out 
these  lectures  will  not  be  bounded  by  what  has  been  said  or 
written  on  the  subject.  We  take  a  wider  range.  We  adopt 
no  sentiment  because  it  is  ancient  or  popular.  We  refer  to 
no  authority  but  what  proves  itself  to  be  correct.  And  we 
ask  no  one  to  adopt  our  opinions  any  farther  than  they 
agree  with  the  fixed  laws  of  nature  in  the  regulation  of 
matter  and  thought,  and  apply  in  common  practice  among 
men. 

Have  we  not  a  right  to  expect,  in  return,  that  you  will  be 
equally  honest  to  yourselves  and  the  subject  before  us  ?  S  ) 
far  as  the  errors  of  existing  systems  shall  be  exposed,  will 
you  not  reject  them,  and  adopt  whatever  appears  conclu- 
sively true  and  practically  useful  ?  Will  you,  can  you,  be 
satisfied  to  adopt  for  yourselves  and  teach  to  others,  sys- 
tems of  grammar,  for  no  other  reason  than  because  they 
are  old,  and  claim  the  support  of  the  learned  and  honora- 
ble ? 

Such  a  course,  generally  adopted,  would  give  the  ever- 
lasting quietus  to  all  improvement.  It  would  be  a  practical 
adoption  of  the  philosophy  of  the  Dutchman,  who  was  con- 
tent to  carry  his  grist  in  one  end  of  the  sack  and  a  stone  to 
balance  it  in  the  other,  assigning  for  a  reason,  that  his  hon- 
ored father  had  always  done  so  before  him.  Who  would 
be  content  to  adopt  the  astrology  of  the  ancients,  in  prefer, 
ance  to  astronomy  as  now  taught,  because  the  latter  is  more 
modern  1  Who  would  spend  three  years  in  transcribing  a 


ITS  IMPORTANCE. 


17 


copy  of  the  Bible,  when  a  better  could  be  obtained  for  one 
dollar,  because  manuscripts  were  thus  procured  in  former 
times  ?  What  lady  would  prefer  to  take  her  cards,  wheel, 
and  loom,  and  spend  a  month  or  two  in  manufacturing  for 
herself  a  dress,  when  a  better  could  be  earned  in  half  the 
time,  merely  because  her  respected  grandmother  did  so  be- 
fore her  ?  Who  would  go  back  a  thousand  years  to  find  a 
model  for  society,  rejecting  all  improvements  in  the  arts 
and  sciences,  because  they  are  innovations,  encroachments 
upon  the  opinions  and  practices  of  learned  and  honorable 
men  ? 

I  can  not  believe  there  is  a  person  in  this  respected  audi- 
ence  whose  mind  is  in  such  voluntary  slavery  as  to  induce 
the  adoption  of  such  a  course.  I  see  before  me  minds  which 
sparkle  in  every  look,  and  thoughts  which  are  ever  active, 
to  acquire  what  is  true,  and  adopt  what  is  useful.  And  I 
flatter  myself  that  the  time  spent  in  the  investigation  of  the 
science  of  language  will  not  be  unpleasant  or  unprofitable. 

I  feel  the  greater  confidence  from  the  consideration  that 
your  minds  are  yet  untrammeled  ;  not  but  what  many, 
probably  most  of  you,  have  already  studied  the  popular  sys- 
tems of  grammar,  and  understood  them  ;  if  such  a  thing  is 
possible  ;  but  because  you  have  shown  a  disposition  to  learn, 
by  becoming  members  of  this  Institute,  the  object  of  which 
is  the  improvement  of  its  members. 

Let  us  therefore  make  an  humble  attempt,  with  all  due 
candor  and  discretion,  to  enter  upon  the  inquiry  before  us 
with  an  unflinching  determination  to  push  our  investigations 
beyond  all  reasonable  doubt,  and  never  rest  satisfied  till  we 
have  conquered  all  conquerable  obstacles,  and  come  into 
the  possession  of  the  light  and  liberty  of  truth, 

B* 


18 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


The  attempt  here  made  will  not  be  considered  unimport- 
ant, by  those  who  have  known  the  difficulties  attending  the 
study  of  language.  If  any  course  can  be  marked  out  to 
shorten  the  time  tediously  spent  in  the  acquisition  of  what  is 
rarely  attained — a  thoro  knowledge  of  language — a  great 
benefit  will  result  to  the  community  ;  children  will  save 
months  and  years  to  engage  in  other  useful  attainments, 
and  the  high  aspirations  of  the  mind  for  truth  and  know- 
ledge will  not  be  curbed  in  its  first  efforts  to  improve  by  a 
set  of  technical  and  arbitrary  rules.  They  will  acquire  a 
habit  of  thinking,  of  deep  reflection  ;  and  never  adopt,  for 
fact,  what  appears  unreasonable  or  inconsistent,  merely  be- 
cause great  or  good  men  have  said  it  is  so.  They  will  feel 
an  independence  of  their  own,  and  adopt  a  course  of  in- 
vestigation which  cannot  fail  of  the  most  important  con- 
sequences. It  is  not  the  saving  of  time,  however,  for 
which  we  propose  a  change  in  the  system  of  teaching  lan- 
guage. In  this  respect,  it  is  the  study  of  one's  life.  New 
facts  are  constantly  developing  themselves,  new  combina- 
tions of  ideas  and  words  are  discovered,  and  new  beauties 
presented  at  every  advancing  step.  It  is  to  acquire  a  know- 
ledge of  correct  principles,  to  induce  a  habit  of  correct 
thinking,  a  freedom  of  investigation,  and  at  that  age  when  the 
character  and  language  of  life  are  forming.  It  is,  in  short, 
to  exhibit  before  you  truth  of  the  greatest  practical  import- 
ance, not  only  to  you,  but  to  generations  yet  unborn,  in  the 
most  essential  affairs  of  human  life,  that  I  have  broached 
the  hated  subject  of  grammar,  and  undertaken  to  reflect 
light  upon  this  hitherto  dark  and  disagreeable  subject. 

With  a  brief  sketch  of  the  outlines  of  language,  as  based 
on  the  fixed  laws  of  nature,  and  the  agreement  of  those 
who  employ  it,  I  shall  conclude  the  present  lecture. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


19 


We  shall  consider  all  language  as  governed  by  the  inva- 
liable  laws  of  nature,  and  as  depending  on  the  conventional 
regulations  of  men. 

Words  are  the  signs  of  ideas.  Ideas  are  the  impressions 
of  things.  Hence,  in  all  our  attempts  to  investigate  the  im- 
portant principles  of  language,  we  shall  employ  the  sign  as 
the  means  of  coming  at  the  thing  signified. 

Language  has  usually  been  considered  under  four  divi- 
sions, viz.  :  Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Pro- 
sody. 

Orthography  is  right  spelling ;  the  combination  of  certain 
letters  into  words  in  such  a  manner  as  to  agree  with  the 
spoken  words  used  to  denote  an  idea.  We  shall  not  labor 
this  point,  altho  we  conceive  a  great  improvement  might  be 
effected  in  this  department  of  learning.  My  only  wish  is  to 
select  from  all  the  forms  of  spelling,  the  most  simple  and 
consistent.  Constant  changes  are  taking  place  in  the  method 
of  making  words,  and  we  would  not  refuse  to  cast  in  our 
mite  to  make  the  standard  more  correct  and  easy.  We 
would  prune  off*  by  degrees  all  unnecessary  appendages,  as 
unsounded  or  italic  letters,  and  write  out  words  so  as  to  be 
capable  of  a  distinct  pronunciation.  But  this  change  must 
be  gradually  effected.  From  the  spelling  adopted  two  cen- 
turies ago,  a  wonderful  improvement  has  taken  place. 
And  we  have  not  yet  gone  beyond  the  possibility  of  im- 
provement. Let  us  not  be  too  sensitive  on  this  point,  nor 
too  tenacious  of  old  forms.  Most  of  our  dictionaries  differ 
in  many  respects  in  regard  to  the  true  system  of  orthogra- 
phy, and  our  true  course  is  to  adopt  every  improvement 
which  is  offered.  Thro  out  this  work  we  shall  spell  some 
words  different  from  what  is  customary,  but  intend  not, 
thereby,  to  incur  the  ignominy  of  bad  spellers.    Let  small 


20 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  LANGUAGE. 


improvements  be  adopted,  and  our  language  may  soon  be 
redeemed  from  the  difficulties  which  have  perplexed  be- 
ginners in  their  first  attempts  to  convey  ideas  by  written 
words.  * 

In  that  department  of  language  denominated  Etymology, 
we  shall  contend  that  all  words  are  reducible  to  two  gene- 
ral classes,  nouns  and  verbs  ;  or,  things  and  actions.  We 
shall,  however,  admit  of  subdivisions,  and  treat  of  pronouns, 
adjectives,  and  contractions.  We  shall  contend  for  only 
two  cases  of  nouns,  one  kind  of  pronouns,  one  kind  of  verbs, 
that  all  are  active  ;  three  modes,  and  as  many  tenses  ;  that 
articles,  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjec 
tions,  have  no  distinctive  character,  no  existence,  in  fact,  to 
warrant  a  "  local  habitation  or  a  name." 

In  the  composition  of  sentences,  a  few  general  rules  of 
S3'ntax  may  be  given  ;  but  the  principal  object  to  be  ob- 
tained, is  the  possession  of  correct  ideas  derived  from-  a 
knowledge  of  things,  and  the  most  approved  words  to  ex- 
press them  ;  the  combination  of  words  in  a  sentence  will 
readily  enough  follow. 

Prosody  relates  to  the  quantity  of  syllables,  rules  of  ac- 
cent and  pronunciation,  and  the  arrangement  of  syllables 
and  words  so  as  to  produce  harmony.  It  applies  specially 
to  versification.  As  our  object  is  not  to  make  poets,  who, 
it  is  said,  "  are  born,  and  not  made,"  but  to  teach  the  true 
principles  of  language,  we  shall  give  no  attention  to  this  fin- 
ishing stroke  of  composition. 

In  our  next  we  shall  lay  before  you  the  principles  upon 

which  all  language  depends,  and  the  process  by  which  its 

use  is  to  be  acquired. 

*The  reader  is  referred  to  "  The  Red  Book,"  by  William  Bear- 
croft,  revised  by  Daniel  H.  Barnes,  late  of  the  New- York  High 
School,  as  a  correct  system  of  teaching  practical  orthography. 


LECTURE  II. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 

General  principles  of  Language. — Business  of  Grammar. — Children 
are  Philosophers. — Things,  ideas,  and  words. — Actions, — Quali- 
ties of  things. — Words  without  ideas.— Grammatical  terms  inap- 
propriate.— Principles  of  Language  permanent. — Errors  in  men- 
tal science. — Facts  admit  of  no  change. — Complex  ideas. — Ideas 
of  qualities. — An  example. — New  ideas. — Unknown  words. — 
Signs  without  things  signified. — Fixed  laws  regulate  matter  and 
mind. 

All  language  depends  on  two  general  principles. 

First.  The  fixed  and  unvarying  laws  of  nature  which 
regulate  matter  and  mind. 

Second,    The  agreement  of  those  who  use  it. 

In  accordance  with  these  principles  all  language  must  be 
explained.  It  is  not  only  needless  but  impossible  for  us  to 
deviate  from  them.  They  remain  the  same  in  all  ages  and 
in  all  countries.  It  should  be  the  object  of  the  gramma- 
rian, and  of  all  who  employ  language  in  the  expression  of 
ideas,  to  become  intimately  acquainted  with  their  use. 

It  is  the  business  of  grammar  to  explain,  not  only  ver- 
bal language,  but  also  the  sublime  principles  upon  which  all 
written  or  spoken  language  depends.  It  forms  an  important 
part  of  physical  and  mental  science,  which,  correctly  ex- 
plained, is  abundantly  simple  and  extensively  useful  in  its 
application  to  the  affairs  of  human  life  and  the  promotion  of 
human  enjoyment. 


22  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 

It  will  not  be  contended  that  we  are  assuming  a  position 
beyond  the  capacities  of  learners,  that  the  course  here  adopt- 
ed is  too  philosophic.  Such  is  not  the  fact.  Children  are  phi- 
losophcrs  by  nature.  All  their  ideas  are  derived  from  things 
as  presented  to  their  observations.  No  mother  learns 
her  child  to  lisp  the  name  of  a  thing  v/hich  has  no  being, 
but  she  chooses  objects  with  which  it  is  most  familiar, 
and  which  are  most  constantly  before  it ;  such  as  father, 
mother,  brother,  sister. 

She  constantly  points  to  the  object  named,  that  a  dis- 
tinct impression  may  be  made  upon  its  mind,  and  the  thing 
signified,  the  idea  of  the  thing,  and  the  name  which  repre- 
sents it,  are  all  inseparably  associated  together.  If  the  father 
is  absent,  the  child  may  think  of  him  from  the  idea  or  im- 
pression which  his  person  and  affection  has  produced  in  the 
mind.  If  the  mother  pronounces  his  name  with  which  it  has 
become  familiar,  the  child  will  start,  look  about  for  the  ob- 
ject, or  thing  signified  by  the  name,  father,  and  not  being 
able  to  discover  him,  will  settle  down  contented  with  the 
idea  of  him  deeply  impressed  on  the  mind,  and  as  distinctly 
understood  as  if  the  father  was  present  in  person.  So  with 
every  thing  else. 

Again,  after  the  child  has  become  familiar  with  the  name 
of  the  being  called  father  ;  the  name,  idea  and  object  itself 
being  intimately  associated  the  mother  will  next  begin  to 
teach  it  another  lesson  ;  following  most  undeviatingly  the 
course  which  nature  and  true  philosophy  mark  out.  The 
father  comes  and  goes,  is  present  or  absent.  She  says  on 
his  return,  father  come,  and  the  little  one  looks  round  to  see 
the  thing  signified  by  the  word  father,  the  idea  of  which  is 
distinctly  impressed  on  the  mind,  and  which  it  now  sees  pre- 
sent before  it.    But  this  loved  object  has  not  always  been 


THINGS.  ACTIONS.  QUALITIES. 


23 


here.  It  had  looked  round  and  called  for  the  father.  But 
the  mother  had  told  it  he  was  gone.  Father  gone,  father 
come,  is  her  language,  and  here  the  child  begins  to  learn 
ideas  of  actions.  Of  this  it  had,  at  first,  no  notion  whatever, 
and  never  thought  of  the  father  except  when  his  person 
was  present  before  it,  for  no  impressions  had  been  distinctly 
made  upon  the  mind  which  could  be  called  up  by  a  sound 
of  which  it  could  have  no  conceptions  whatever.  Now 
that  it  has  advanced  so  far,  the  idea  of  the  father  is  retained, 
even  tho  he  is  himself  absent,  and  the  child  begins  to  associ- 
ate the  notion  of  coming  and  going  with  his  presence  or  ab- 
sence. Following  out  this  course  the  mind  becomes  ac- 
quainted with  things  and  actions,  or  the  changes  which 
-things  undergo. 

Next,  the  mother  begins  to  learn  her  offspring  the  dis- 
tinction and  qualities  of  things.  When  the  little  sister 
comes  to  it  in  innocent  playfulness  the  mother  says,  good 
sister,"  and  with  the  descriptive  word  good  it  soon  begins  to 
associate  the  quality  expressed  by  the  affectionate  regard, 
of  its  sister.  But  when  that  sister  strikes  the  child,  or  pes- 
ters it  in  any  way,  the  mother  says  "  naughty  sister,"  "  bad 
sister."  It  soon  comprehends  the  descriptive  words,  good 
and  bad,  and  along  with  them  carries  the  association  of  ideas 
which  such  conduct  produces.  In  the  same  way  it  learns 
to  distinguish  the  difference  between  great  and  small,  cold 
and  hot,  hard  and  soft. 

In  this  manner  the  child  becomes  acquainted  with  the 
use  of  language.  It  first  becomes  acquainted  with  things, 
the  idea  of  which  is  left  upon  the  mind,  or,  more  properly, 
the  impression  of  lohich,  left  on  the  mind,  constitutes  the 
idea  ;  and  a  vocabulary  of  words  are  learned,  which  repre- 
sent these  ideas,  from  which  it  may  select  those  best  calcu- 


24  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 

lated  to  express  its  meaning  whenever  a  conversation  is 
had  with  another. 

You  will  readily  perceive  the  correctness  of  our  first 
proposition,  that  all  language  depends  on  the  fixed  and  un- 
erring laws  of  nature.  Things  exist.  A  knowledge  of 
them  produces  ideas  in  the  mind,  and  sounds  or  signs  are 
adopted  as  vehicles  to  convey  these  ideas  from  one  to 
another. 

It  would  be  absurd  and  ridiculous  to  suppose  that  any 
person,  however  great,  or  learned,  or  wise,  could  employ 
language  correctly  without  a  knowledge  of  the  things  ex- 
pressed by  that  language.  No  matter  how  chaste  his  words, 
how  lofty  his  phrases,  how  sweet  the  intonations,  or  mellow 
the  accents.  It  would  avail  him  nothing  if  ideas  were  not 
represented  thereby.  It  would  all  be  an  unknown  tongue 
to  the  hearer  or  reader.  It  would  not  be  like  the  loud 
rolling  thunder,  for  that  tells  the  wondrous  power  of  God. 
It  would  not  be  like  the  soft  zephyrs  of  evening,  the  radi- 
ance of  the  sun,  the  twinkling  of  the  stars  ;  for  they  speak 
the  intelligible  language  of  sublimity  itself,  and  tell  of  the 
kindness  and  protection  of  our  Father  who  is  in  heaven. 
It  would  not  be  like  the  sweet  notes  of  the  choral  songsters 
of  the  grove,  for  they  warble  hymns  of  gratitude  to  God  ; 
not  like  the  boding  of  the  distant  owl,  for  that  tells  the  pro- 
found solemnity  of  night ;  not  like  the  hungry  lion  roaring 
for  his  prey,  for  that  tells  of  death  and  plunder  ;  not  like 
the  distant  notes  of  the  clarion,  for  that  tells  of  blood  and 
carnage,  of  tears  and  anguish,  of  widowhood  and  orphan- 
age. It  can  be  compared  to  nothing  but  a  Babel  of  confu- 
sion  in  which  their  own  folly  is  worse  confounded.  And 
yet,  I  am  sorry  to  say  it,  the  languages  of  all  ages  and  na- 
tions have  been  too  frequently  perverted,  and  compiled  into 


GRAMMATICAL  TERMS  INAPPROPRIATE.  25 


a  heterogeneous  mass  of  abstruse,  metaphysical  volumes, 
whose  only  recommendation  is  the  elegant  bindings  in  which 
they  are  enclosed. 

And  grammars  themselves,  whose  pretended  object  is  to 
teach  the  rules  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly,  form  but 
a  miserable  exception  to  this  sweeping  remark.  I  defy  any 
grammarian,  author,  or  teacher  of  the  numberless  systems, 
which  come,  like  the  frogs  of  Egypt,  all  of  one  genus,  to 
cover  the  land,  to  give  a  reasonable  explanation  of  even  the 
terms  they  employ  to  define  their  meaning,  if  indeed,  mean- 
ing they  have.  What  is  meant  by  an  "  z'w-definite  article," 
a  di^.junctive  cow-junction,  an  ad-verh  which  qualifies  an 
adjective,  and  "  sometimes  another  ad-yevh  ?"  Such  "  parts  of 
speech"  have  no  existence  in  fact,  and  their  adoption  in  rules 
of  grammar,  have  been  found  exceedingly  mischievous  and 
perplexing.  "Adverbs  and  conjunctions,"  and  "  atZver^zaZ 
phrases,"  and  "  conjunctive  expressions,"  may  serve  as  com- 
mon sewers  for  a  large  and  most  useful  class  of  words, 
which  the  teachers  of  grammar  and  lexicographers  have 
been  unable  to  explain  ;  but  learners  will  gain  little  informa- 
tion by  being  told  that  such  is  an  adverbial  phrase,  and 
such,  a  conjunctive  expression.  This  is  an  easy  method,  I 
confess,  a  sort  of  wholesale  traffic,  in  parsing  (passing)  lan- 
guage, and  may  serve  to  cloak  the  ignorance  of  the  teach- 
ers and  makers  of  grammars.  But  it  will  reflect 'little  light 
on  the  principles  of  language,  or  prove  very  efficient  helps 
to  "  speak  or  write  with  propriety."  Those  who  think,  will 
demand  the  meaning  of  these  words,  and  the  reason  of  their 
use.  When  that  is  ascertained,  little  difficulty  will  be  found 
in  giving  them  a  place  in  the  company  of  respectable  words. 
But  I  am  digressing.  More  shall  be  said  upon  this  point  in 
a  future  lecture,  and  in  its  proper  place, 
c 


26  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 

I  was  endeavoring  to  establish  the  position  that  all  lan- 
guage depends  upon  permanent  principles  ;  that  words  are 
the  signs  of  ideas,  and  ideas  are  the  impressions  of  things 
communicated  to  the  mind  thro  the  medium  of  some  one  of 
the  five  senses.  I  think  I  have  succeeded  so  far  as  simple 
material  things  are  concerned,  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  who 
have  heard  me.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  more  difficult  for  me 
to  explain  the  words  employed  to  express  complex  ideas, 
and  things  of  immateriality,  such  as  mind,  and  its  attributes. 
But  the  rules  previously  adopted  will,  I  apprehend,  apply 
with  equal  ease  and  correctness  in  this  case  ;  and  we  shall 
have  cause  to  admire  the  simple  yet  sublime  foundation  up- 
on which  the  whole  superstructure  of  language  is  based. 

In  pursuing  this  investigation  I  shall  endeavor  to  avoid 
all  abstruse  and  metaphysical  reasoning,  present  no  wild 
conjectures,  or  vain  hypotheses  ;  but  confine  myself  to  plain, 
common  place  matter  of  fact.  We  have  reason  to  rejoice 
that  a  wonderful  improvement  in  the  science  and  cultivation 
of  the  mind  has  taken  place  in  these  last  days  ;  that  we  are 
no  longer  puzzled  with  the  strange  phantoms,  the  wild  spec- 
ulations which  occupied  the  giant  minds  of  a  Descartes,  a 
Malebranch,  a  Locke,  a  Reid,  a  Stewart,  and  hosts  of  oth- 
ers, whose  shining  talents  would  have  qualified  them  for  the 
brightest  ornaments  of  literature,  real  benefactors  of  man- 
kind, had  riot  their  education  lead  them  into  dark  and  meta- 
physical  reasonings,  a  continued  tissue  of  the  wildest  vaga- 
ries, in  which  they  became  entangled,  till,  at  length,  they 
were  entirely  lost  in  the  labyrinth  of  their  own  conjectures. 

The  occasion  of  all  their  difficulty  originated  in  an  attempt 
to  investigate  the  faculties  of  the  mind  without  any  means 
of  getting  at  it.  They  did  not  content  themselves  with  an 
adoption  of  the  principles  which  lay  at  the  foundation  of  all 


ERRORS  IN  MENTAL  SCIENCE. 


27 


true  philosophy,  viz.,  that  the  facts  to  be  accounted  for,  do 
exist ;  that  truth  is  eternal,  and  we  are  to  become  acquainted 
with  it  by  the  means  employed  for  its  development.  They 
quitted  the  world  of  materiality  they  inhabited,  refused  to 
examine  the  development  of  mind  as  the  effect  of  an  exist- 
ing cause  ;  and  at  one  bold  push,  entered  the  world  of 
thought,  and  made  the  unhallowed  attempt  to  reason,  a  pri- 
ori, concerning  things  which  can  only  be  known  by  their 
manifestations.  But  they  soon  found  themselves  in  a  strange 
land,  confused  with  sights  and  sounds  unknown,  in  the  ex- 
planaiion  of  which  they,  of  course,  choose  terms  as  unin- 
telligible to  their  readers,  as  the  ideal  realities  were  to  them. 
This  course,  adopted  by  Aristotle,  has  been  too  closely  fol- 
lowed by  those  who  have  come  after  him.*  But  a  new  era 
has  dawned  upon  the  philosophy  of  the  mind,  and  a  corres- 
ponding change  in  the  method  of  inculcating  the  principles 
of  language  must  follow."]" 

In  all  our  investigations  we  must  take  things  as  we  find 

*  Gall,  Spurzlieim,  and  Combe,  have  reflected  a  light  upon  the 
science  of  the  mind,  which  cannot  fail  of  beneficial  results.  The 
the  doctrines  of  phrenology,  as  now  taught,  may  prove  false — which 
is  quite  doubtful — or  receive  extensive  modifications,  yet  the  conse- 
quences to  the  philosophy  of  the  mind  will  be  vastly  useful.  The 
very  terms  employed  to  express  the  faculties  and  affections  of  the 
mind,  are  so  definite  and  clear,  that  phrenology  will  long  deserve 
peculiar  regard,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  for  the  introduction  of  a 
vocabulary,  from  which  may  be  selected  words  for  the  communica- 
tion of  ideas  upon  intellectual  subjects. 

t  Metaphysics  originally  signified  the  science  of  the  causes  and 
principles  of  all  things.  Afterwards  it  was  confined  to  the  philoso- 
phy of  the  mind.  In  our  times  it  has  obtained  still  another  mean- 
ing. Metaphysicians  became  so  abstruse,  bewildered,  and  lost,  that 
nobody  could  understand  them  ;  and  hence,  metaphysical  is  now 
applied  to  whatever  is  abstruse,  doubtful,  and  unintelligible.  If  a 
speaker  is  not  understood,  it  is  because  he  is  too  metaphysical. 
"How  did  you  like  the  sermon,  yesterday  ?"  "Tolerably  well ;  but 
he  was  too  metaphysical  for  common  hearers."  They  could  not  un- 
der stand  him. 


28  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 

them,  and  account  for  them  as  far  as  we  can.  It  would  be  a 
thankless  task  to  attempt  a  change  of  principles  in  any  thing. 
That  would  be  an  encroachment  of  the  Creator's  rights.  It 
belongs  to  mortals  to  use  the  things  they  have  as  not  abus- 
ing them  ;  and  to  Deity  to  regulate  the  laws  by  which  those 
things  are  governed.  And  that  man  is  the  wisest,  the  truest 
philosopher,  and  brightest  christian,  who  acquaints  himself 
with  those  laws  as  they  do  exist  in  the  regulation  of  matter 
and  mind,  in  the  promotion  of  physical  and  moral  enjoy- 
ment, and  endeavors  to  conform  to  them  in  all  his  thoughts 
and  actions. 

From  this  apparent  digression  you  will  at  once  discover 
our  object.  We  must  not  endeavor  to  change  the  princi- 
ples of  language,  but  to  understand  and  explain  them  ;  to 
ascertain,  as  far  as  possible,  the  actions  of  the  mind  in  ob- 
taining  ideas,  and  the  use  of  language  in  expressing  them. 
We  may  not  be  able  to  make  our  sentiments  understood  ; 
but  if  they  are  not,  the  fault  will  originate  in  no  obscurity 
in  the  facts  themselves,  but  in  our  inability  either  to  under- 
stand them  or  the  words  employed  in  their  expression.  Hav- 
ing been  in  the  habit  of  using  words  with  either  no  mean- 
ing  or  a  wrong  one,  it  may  be  difficult  to  comprehend  the 
subject  of  which  they  treat.  A  man  may  have  a  quantity 
of  sulphur,  charcoal,  and  nitre,  but  it  is  not  until  he  learns 
their  properties  and  combinations  that  he  can  make  gun- 
powder. Let  us  then  adopt  a  careful  and  independent  course 
of  reasoning,  resolved  to  meddle  with  nothing  we  do  not  un- 
derstand, and  to  use  no  words  until  we  know  their  mean- 
ing. 

A  complex  idea  is  a  combination  of  several  simple  ones, 
as  a  tree  is  made  up  of  roots,  a  trunk,  branches,  twigs,  and 
leaves.    And  these  again  may  be  divided  into  the  wood, 


COMPLEX  IDEAS. 


29 


the  bark,  the  sap,  &;c.  Or  we  may  employ  the  botanical 
terms,  and  enumerate  its  e;sternal  and  internal  parts  and 
qualities ;  the  whole  anatomy  and  physiology,  as  well  as 
variety  and  history  of  trees  of  that  species,  and  show  its 
characteristic  distinctions  ;  for  the  mind  receives  a  different 
impression  on  looking  at  a  maple,  a  birch,  a  poplar,  a  tam- 
arisk, a  sycamore,  or  hemlock.  In  this  way  complex  ideas 
are  formed,  distinct  in  their  parts,  but  blended  in  a  common 
whole  ;  and,  in  conformity  with  the  law  regulating  language, 
words,  sounds  or  signs,  are  employed  to  express  the  com- 
plex whole,  or  each  distinctive  part.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  all  things  of  like  character.  But  this  idea  I  will 
illustrate  more  at  large  before  the  close  of  this  lecture. 

First  impressions  are  produced  by  a  view  of  material 
things,  as  we  have  already  seen  ;  and  the  notion  of  action 
is  obtained  from  a  knowledge  of  the  changes  these  things 
undergo.  The  idea  of  quality  and  definition  is  produced  by 
contrast  and  comparison.  Children  soon  learn  the  differ- 
ence between  a  sweet  apple  and  a  sour  one,  a  white  rose 
and  a  red  one,  a  hard  seat  and  a  soft  one,  harmonious  sounds 
and  those  that  are  discordant,  a  pleasant  smell  and  one 
that  is  disagreeable.  As  the  mind  advances,  the  appli- 
cation is  varied,  and  they  speak  of  a  sweet  rose,  changing 
from  taste  and  sight  to  smell,  of  a  sweet  song,  of  a  hard  ap- 
ple, &c.  According  to  the  qualities  thus  learned,  you  may 
talk  to  them  intelligibly  of  the  sweetness  of  an  apple,  the 
color  of  a  rose,  the  hardness  of  iron,  the  harmony  of  sounds, 
the  smell  or  scent  of  things  which  possess  that  quality.  As 
these  agree  or  disagree  with  their  comfort,  they  will  call 
them  good  or  had,  and  speak  of  the  qualities  of  goodness  and 
badness,  as  if  possessed  by  the  thing  itself, 
c* 


30 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 


In  this  apparently  indiscriminate  use  of  words,  the  ideas 
remain  distinct ;  and  each  sign  or  object  calls  them  up  sep- 
arately and  associates  them  together,  till,  at  length,  in  the 
single  object  is  associated  all  the  ideas  entertained  of  its  size, 
qualities,  relations,  and  affinities. 

In  this  manner,  after  long,  persevering  toil,  principles  of 
thought  are  fixed,  and  a  foundation  laid  for  the  whole  course 
of  future  thinking  and  speaking.  The  ideas  become  less 
simple  and  distinct.  Just  as  fast  as  the  mind  advances  in  the 
knowledge  of  things,  language  keeps  pace  with  the  ideas, 
and  even  goes  beyond  them,  so  that  in  process  of  time  as  in- 
gle term  will  not  unfrequenly  represent  a  complexity  of 
ideas,  one  of  which  will  signify  a  whole  combination  of 
things. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  instances  where  the  , 
single  declaration  of  a  fact  may  convey  to  the  untutored 
mind,  a  single  thought  or  nearly  so,  when  the  better  culti- 
vated will  take  into  the  account  the  whole  process  by 
which  it  is  effected.  To  illustrate  :  a  man  killed  a  deer. 
Here  the  boy  would  see  and  imagine  more  than  he  is  yet 
fully  able  to  comprehend.  He  will  see  the  obvious  fact  that 
the  man  levels  his  musket,  the  gun  goes  off  with  a  loud  re- 
port, and  the  deer  falls  and  dies.  How  this  is  all  produced 
he  does  not  understand,  but  knowing  the  fact  he  asserts  the 
single  truth — the  man  killed  the  deer.  As  the  child  advances, 
he  will  learn  that  the  sentence  conveys  to  the  mind  more 
than  he  at  first  perceived.  He  now  understands  how  it  was 
accomplished.  Tb.e  man  had  a  gun.  Then  he  must  go 
back  to  the  gunsmith  and  see  how  it  was  made,  thence  back 
to  the  iron  taken  from  its  bed,  and  wrought  into  bars  ;  all 
the  processes  by  which  it  is  brought  into  the  shape  of  a  gun, 
the  tools  and  machinery  employed  ;  tiu  wood  for  the  stock, 


AN  EXAMPLE. 


31 


its  quality  and  production  ;  the  size,  form  and  color  of  the 
lock,  the  principle  upon  which  it  moves ;  the  flint,  the  eflfect 
produced  by  a  collision  with  the  steel,  or  a  percussion  cap, 
and  its  composition  ;  till  he  finds  a  single  gun  in  the  hands  of 
a  man.  The  man  is  present  with  this  gun.  The  motives 
which  brought  him  here  ;  the  movements  of  his  limbs,  regu- 
lated by  the  determinations  of  the  mind,  and  a  thousand 
other  such  thoughts,  might  be  taken  into  the  account.  Then 
the  deer,  his  size,  form,  color,  manner  of  living,  next  may 
claim  a  passing  thought.  But  I  need  not  enlarge.  Here 
they  both  stand.  The  man  has  just  seen  the  deer.  As 
quick  as  thought  his  eye  passes  over  the  ground,  sees  the 
prey  is  within  proper  distance,  takes  aim,  pulls  the  trigger, 
that  loosens  a  spring,  which  forces  the  flint  against  the  steel ; 
this  produces  a  spark,  which  ignites  the  charcoal,  and  the 
sulphur  and  nitre  combined,  explode  and  force  the  wad, 
which  forces  the  ball  from  the  gun,  and  is  borne  thro  the 
air  till  it  reaches  the  deer,  enters  his  body  by  displacing  the 
skin  and  flesh,  deranges  the  animal  functions,  and  death  en- 
sues. The  whole  and  much  more  is  expressed  in  the  single 
phrase,  "  a  man  killed  a  deer." 

It  would  be  needless  for  me  to  stop  here,  and  examine  all 
the  operations  of  the  mind  in  coming  at  this  state  of  know- 
ledge. That  is  not  the  object  of  the  present  work.  Such 
a  duty  belongs  to  another  treatise,  which  may  some  day  be 
undertaken,  on  logic  and  the  science  of  the  mind.  The  hint 
here  given  will  enable  you  to  perceive  how  the  mind  ex- 
pands, and  how  language  keeps  pace  with  every  advancing 
step,  and,  also,  how  combinations  are  made  from  simple 
things,  as  a  house  is  made  of  timber,  boards,  shingles,  nails, 
and  paints  ;  or  of  bricks,  stone,  and  mortar ;  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  when  completed,  a  single  term  may  express 


32  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 

the  idea,  and  you  speak  of  a  wood,  or  a  brick  house.  Fol- 
lowing this  suggestion,  by  tracing  the  operations  of  the 
mind  in  the  young  child,  or  your  own,  very  minutely,  in  the 
acquisition  of  any  knowledge  before  wholly  unknown  to  you, 
as  a  new  language,  or  a  new  science  ;  botany,  mineralogy, 
chemistry,  or  phrenology  ;  you  will  readily  discover  how 
the  mind  receives  new  impressions  of  things,  and  a  new  vo- 
cabulary is  adopted  to  express  the  ideas  formed  of  plants, 
minerals,  chemical  properties,  and  the  development  of  the 
capacities  of  the  mind  as  depending  on  material  organs  ; 
how  these  things  are  changed  and  combined  ;  and  how  their 
existence  and  qualities,  changes  and  combinations,  are  ex- 
pressed by  words,  to  be  retained,  or  conveyed  to  other  minds. 

But  suppose  you  talk  to  a  person  wholly  unacquainted 
with  these  things,  will  he  understand  you  ?  Talk  to  him  of 
stamens,  pistils,  calyxes  ;  of  monandria,  diandria,  triandria  ; 
of  gypsum,  talc,  calcareous  spar,  quartz,  topaz,  mica,  gar- 
net, pyrites,  hornblende,  augite,  actynolite  ;  of  hexahedral, 
prismatic,  rhomboidal,  dodecahedral ;  of  acids  and  alkalies  ; 
of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  carbon ;  of  the  config- 
uration of  the  brain,  and  its  relative  powers  ;  do  all  this,  and 
what  will  he  know  of  your  meaning  ?  So  of  all  science. 
Words  are  to  be  understood  from  the  things  they  are  em- 
ployed to  represent.  You  may  as  well  talk  to  a  man  in 
the  hebrew,  Chinese,  or  choctaw  languages,  as  in  our  own, 
if  he  does  not  know  what  is  signified  by  the  words  selected 
as  the  medium  of  thought. 

Your  language  may  be  most  pure,  perfect,  full  of  mean- 
ing, but  you  cannot  make  yourself  understood  till  your 
hearers  can  look  thro  your  signs  to  the  things  signified. 
You  may  as  well  present  before  them  a  picture  of  nothing. 

The  great  fault  in  the  popular  system  of  education  is 


SIGNS  WITHOUT  THINGS  SIGNIFIED. 


33 


easily  accounted  for,  particularly  in  reference  to  language. 
Children  are  taught  to  study  signs  without  looking  at  the 
thing  signified.  In  this  way  they  are  mere  copyists,  and 
the  mind  can  never  expand  so  as  to  make  them  independ- 
ent,  original  thinkers.  In  fact,  they  can,  in  this  way,  never 
learn  to  reason  well  or  employ  language  correctly  ;  no 
more  than  a  painter  can  be  successful  in  his  art,  by  merely 
looking  at  the  pictures  of  others  without  having  ever  seen 
the  originals.  A  good  artist  is  a  close  observer  of  nature. 
So  children  should  be  left  free  to  examine  and  reflect,  and 
the  signs  will  then  serve  their  proper  use — the  means  of 
acquiring  the  knowledge  of  things.  In  vain  you  may  give 
a  scholar  a  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  or  Latin, 
learn  him  to  translate  with  rapidity  or  speak  our  own  lan- 
guage fluently.  If  he  has  not  thereby  learned  the  knowledge 
of  things  signified  by  such  language,  he  is,  in  principle,  ad- 
vanced  no  farther  than  the  parrot  which  says  ''pretty 
poll,  pretty  poll." 

I  am  happy,  however,  in  the  consideration  that  a  valua- 
ble change  is  taking  place  in  ^is  respect.  Geography  is 
no  longer  taught  on  the  old  systems,  but  maps  are  given 
to  represent  more  vividly  land  and  water,  rivers,  islands, 
and  mountains.  The  study  of  arithmetic,  chemistry,  and 
nearly  all  the  sciences  have  been  materially  improved  with- 
in a  few  years.  Grammar  alone  remains  in  quiet  possess- 
ion of  its  unquestioned  authority.  Its  nine  "parts  of 
speech,"  its  three  genders,  its  three  cases,  its  half  dozen 
kinds  of  pronouns,  and  as  many  moods  and  tenses,  have 
rarely  been  disquieted.  A  host  of  book  makers  have  fondled 
around  them,  but  few  have  dared  molest  them,  finding 
them  so  snugly  ensconced  under  the  sanctity  of  age,  and 
the  venerated  opinions  of  learned  and  good  men.    Of  the 


34  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LANGUAGE. 

numberless  attempts  to  simplify  grammar,  what  has  been 
the  success  ?  Wherein  do  modern  "  simplifiers"  differ  from 
Murray  ?  and  he  was  only  a  compiler !  They  have  all 
discovered  his  errors.  But  who  has  corrected  them  ?  They 
have  all  deviated  somewhat  from  his  manner.  But  what 
is  that  but  saying,  that  with  all  his  grammatical  knowledge, 
he  could  not  explain  his  own  meaning  ? 

All  the  trouble  originates  in  this  ;  the  rules  of  grammar 
have  not  been  sought  for  where  they  are  only  to  be  found, 
in  the  laws  that  govern  matter  and  thought.  Arbitrary  rules 
have  been  adopted  which  will  never  apply  in  practice,  ex- 
cept  in  special  cases,  and  the  attempt  to  bhid  language  down 
to  them  is  as  absurd  as  to  undertake  to  chain  thought,  or 
stop  the  waters  of  Niagarsi  with  a  straw.  Language  will 
go  on,  and  keep  pace  with  the  mind,  and  grammar  should 
explain  it  so  as  to  be  correctly  understood. 

I  wish  you  to  keep  these  principles  distinctly  in  view  all 
thro  my  remarks,  that  you  may  challenge  every  position  I 
assume  till  proved  to  be  correct — till  you  distinctly  under- 
stand it  and  definite  impressions  are  made  upon  your  minds. 
In  this  way  you  will  discover  a  beauty  and  perfection  in 
language  before  unknown  ;  its  rules  will  be  found  few  and 
simple,  holding  with  most  unyielding  tenacity  to  the  sublime 
principles  upon  which  they  depend  ;  and  you  will  have  rea- 
son to  admire  the  works  and  adore  the  character  of  the 
great  Parent  Intellect,  whose  presence  and  protection  per- 
vade all  his  works  and  regulate  the  laws  of  matter  and 
mind.  You  will  feel  yourselves  involuntarily  filled  with 
sentiments  of  gratitude  for  the  gift  of  mind,  its  affections, 
powers,  and  means  of  operation  and  communication,  and 
resolved  more  than  ever  to  employ  these  faculties  in  human 
improvement  and  the  advancement  of  general  happiness. 


LECTURE  III. 


WRITTEN  AND  SPOKEN  LANGUAGE. 

Principles  never  alter. — They  should  be  known. — Grammar  a  most 
important  branch  of  science. — Spoken  and  written  Language. — 
Idea  of  a  thing. — How  expressed. — An  example. — Picture  writ- 
ing.— An  anecdote. — Ideas  expressed  by  actions. — Principles  of 
spoken  and  written  Language. — Apply  universally. — Two  exam- 
pies. — English  language. — Foreign  words. — Words  in  science. — 
New  words. — How  formed. 

We  now  come  to  take  a  nearer  view  of  language  as  gen- 
erally understood  by  grammar.  But  we  shall  have  no  oc- 
casion to  depart  from  the  principles  already  advanced,  for 
there  is  existing  in  practice  nothing  which  may  not  be  ac- 
counted for  in  theory  ;  as  there  can  be  no  effect  without  an 
efficient  cause  to  produce  it. 

We  may,  however,  long  remain  ignorant  of  the  true  ex- 
planation  of  the  principles  involved  ;  but  the  fault  is  ours, 
and  not  in  the  things  themselves.  The  earth  moved  with 
as  much  grandeur  and  precision  around  its  axis  and  in  its 
orbit  before  the  days  of  Gallileo  Gallilei,  when  philosophers 
believed  it  flat  and  stationary,  as  it  has  done  since.  So  the 
great  principles  on  which  depends  the  existence  and  use  of 
all  language  are  permanent,  and  may  be  correctly  employed 
by  those  who  have  never  examined  them  ;  but  this  does  not 
prove  that  to  be  ignorant  is  better  than  to  be  wise.  We 
may  have  taken  food  all  our  days  without  knowing  much 
of  the  process  by  which  it  is  converted  into  nourishment  and 
incorporated  into  our  bodies,  without  ever  having  heard  of 


36 


WRITTEN  AND  SPOKEN  LANGUAGE. 


delulition  chymification,  chylification,  or  even  digestion,  as 
a  whole ;  but  this  is  far  from  convincing  me  that  the  knowl- 
edge of  these  things  is  unimportant,  or  that  ignorance  of  them 
is  not  the  cause  of  much  disease  and  suffering  among  man- 
kind. And  it  is,  or  should  be,  the  business  of  the  physiol- 
ogist to  explain  these  things,  and  show  the  great  practical 
benefit  resulting  from  a  general  knowledge  of  them.  So 
the  grammarian  should  act  as  a  sort  of  physiologist  of  lan- 
guage. He  should  analyze  all  its  parts  and  show  how  it 
is  framed  together  to  constitute  a  perfect  whole. 

Instead  of  exacting  of  you  a  blind  submission  to  a  set  of 
technical  expressions,  and  arbitrary  rules,  I  most  urgently 
exhort  you  to  continue,  with  unremitting  assiduity,  your  in- 
quiries into  the  reason  and  propriety  of  the  positions  which 
may  be  taken.  It  is  the  business  of  philosophy,  not  to 
meddle  with  things  to  direct  how  they  should  be,  but  to  ac- 
count for  them  and  their  properties  and  relations  as  they 
are.  So  it  is  the  business  of  grammar  to  explain  language 
as  it  exists  in  use,  and  exhibit  the  reason  why  it  is  used 
thus,  and  what  principles  must  be  observed  to  employ  it 
correctly  in  speaking  and  writing.  This  method  is  adopted 
to  carry  out  the  principles  already  established,  and  show 
their  adaptation  to  the  wants  of  the  community,  and  how 
they  may  be  correctly  and  successfully  employed.  Gram- 
mar considered  in  this  light  forms  a  department  in  the  sci- 
ence of  the  mind  by  no  means  unimportant.  And  it  can  not 
fail  to  be  deeply  interesting  to  all  who  would  employ  it  in 
the  business,  social,  literary,  moral,  or  religious  concerns  of 
life.  Those  who  have  thoughts  to  communicate,  or  desire 
an  acquaintance  with  the  minds  of  others,  can  not  be  indif- 
ferent to  the  means  on  which  such  intercourse  depends.  I 
am  convinced,  therefore,  that  you  will  give  me  your  most 


WORDS.  THE  SIGNS  OF  THINGS. 


37 


profound  attention  as  I  pursue  the  subject  of  the  present 
lecture  somewhat  in  detail.  And  I  hope  you  will  not  con- 
sider  me  tedious  or  unnecessarily  prolix  in  my  remarks. 

I  will  not  be  particular  in  my  remarks  upon  the  changes 
of  spoken  and  written  language,  altho  that  topic  of  itself,  in 
the  different  sounds  and  signs  employed  in  different  ages 
and  by  different  nations  to  express  the  same  idea,  would 
form  a  most  interesting  theme  for  several  lectures.  But 
that  work  must  be  reserved  for  a  future  occasion.  You 
are  all  acquainted  with  the  signs,  written  and  spoken,  which 
are  employed  in  our  language  as  vehicles  (some  of  them 
like  omnibusses)  of  thought  to  carry  ideas  from  one  mind 
to  another.  Some  of  you  doubtless  are  acquainted  with  the 
application  of  this  fact  in  other  languages.  In  other  words, 
you  know  how  to  sound  the  name  of  a  thing,  how  to  de- 
scribe its  properties  as  far  as  you  understand  them,  and  its 
attitudes  or  changes.  This  you  can  do  by  vocal  sounds,  or 
written,  or  printed  signs. 

On  the  other  hand,  you  can  receive  a  similar  impression 
by  hearing  the  description  of  another,  or  by  seeing  it  writ- 
ten or  printed.  But  here  you  will  bear  in  mind  the  fact 
that  the  word,  spoken  or  written,  is  but  the  sign  of  the  idea 
derived  from  the  thing  signified.  For  example  :  Here  is 
an  apple.  I  do  not  now  speak  of  its  composition,  the  skin, 
the  pulp,  &c. ;  nor  of  its  qualities,  whether  sour,  or  sweet, 
or  bitter,  good  or  bad,  great  or  small,  long  or  short,  round 
or  flat,  red,  or  white,  or  yellow.  I  speak  of  a  single  thing 
— an  apple.  Here  it  is,  present  before  you.  Look  at  it. 
It  is  now  removed.  You  do  not  see  it.  Your  minds  are 
occupied  with  something  else,  in  looking  at  that  organ,  or  this 
representation  of  Solomon's  temple,  or,  perhaps,  lingering 
in  melancholy  review  of  your  old  systems  of  grammar 

D 


38 


WRITTEN  AND  SPOKEN  LANGUAGE. 


thro  which  you  plodded  at  a  tedious  rate,  goaded  on  by  the 
stimulus  of  the  ferule,  or  the  fear  of  being  called  ignorant. 
From  that  unhappy  reverie  I  recal  your  minds,  by  saying 
apple.  An  apple  1  where  ?  There  is  none  in  sight.  No ; 
but  you  have  distinct  recollections  of  a  single  object  I  just 
now  held  before  you.  You  see  it,  mentally,  and  were  you 
painters  you  might  paint  its  likeness.  What  has  brought 
this  object  so  vividly  before  you  ?  The  single  sound  apple. 
This  sound  has  called  up  the  idea  produced  in  your  mind 
on  looking  at  this  object  which  I  now  again  present  before 
you.  Here  is  the  thing  represented — the  apple.  Again  I 
lay  it  aside,  and  commence  a  conversation  with  you  on  the 
varieties  of  apples,  the  form,  color,  flavor,  manner  of  pro- 
duction, their  difference  from  other  fruit,  where  found,  when, 
and  by  whom.  Here  !  look  again.  What  do  you  see  ? 
A-P-P-L-E — Apple.  What  is  that  ?  The  representation 
of  the  idea  p-roduced  in  the  mind  by  a  certain  object  you 
saw  a  little  while  ago.  Here  then  you  have  the  spoken 
and  written  signs  of  this  single  object  I  now  again  present 
to  your  vision.  This  idea  may  also  be  called  up  by  the 
sense  of  feeling,  smelling,  or  tasting,  under  certain  restric- 
tions.  Here  you  would  be  no  more  liable  to  be  mistaken 
than  by  seeing.  We  can  indeed  imagine  things  which  would 
feel,  and  smell,  and  taste,  and  look  some  like  an  apple,  but 
it  falls  to  the  lot  of  more  abstruse  reasoners  to  make  their 
suppositions,  and  then  account  for  them — to  imagine  things, 
and  then  treat  of  them  as  realities.  We  are  content  with 
the  knowledge  of  things  as  they  do  exist,  and  think  there  is 
little  danger  of  mistaking  a  potato  for  an  apple,  or  a  squash 
for  a  pear.  Tho  in  the  dark  we  may  lay  hold  of  the 
Frenchman's  pomme  de  terre — apple  of  the  earth,  the  first 


PICTURE  WRITING.  ANECDOTE.  39 

bite  will  satisfy  us  of  our  mistake  if  we  are  not  too  meta- 
physical. 

The  same  idea  may  be  called  up  in  your  minds  by  a  pic- 
ture of  the  apple  presented  to  your  sight.  On  this  ground 
the  picture  writing  of  the  ancients  may  be  accounted  for  ; 
and  after  that,  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  and  other  coun- 
tries, which  was  but  a  step  from  picture  writing  towards  the 
use  of  the  alphabet.  But  these  signs  or  vehicles  for  the 
conveyance  or  transmission  of  their  thoughts,  compared 
with  the  present  perfect  state  of  language,  were  as  aukward 
and  uncomly  as  the  carriages  employed  for  the  convey- 
ance of  their  bodies  were  compared  with  those  now  in  use. 
They  were  like  ox  carts  drawn  by  mules,  compared  with 
the  most  splendid  barouches  drawn  by  elegant  dapple- 
greys. 

A  similar  mode  would  be  adopted  now  by  those  unac- 
quainted with  alphabetical  writing.  It  was  so  with  the 
merchant  who  could  not  write.  He  sold  his  neighbor  a 
grindstone,  on  trust.  Lest  he  should  forget  it — lest  the  idea 
.  of  it  should  be  obliterated  from  the  mind — he,  in  the  absence 
of  his  clerk,  took  his  book  and  a  pen  and  drew  out  a  round 
picture  to  represent  it.  Some  months  after,  he  dunned  his 
neighbor  for  his  pay  for  a  cheese.  "  I  have  bought  no 
cheese  of  you,"  was  the  reply.  Yes,  you  have,  for  I  have 
it  charged.  "  You  must  be  mistaken,  for  I  never  bought  a 
cheese.  We  always  make  our  own."  How  then  should 
I  have  one  charged  to  you  ?  "I  cannot  tell.  I  have  never 
had  any  thing  here  on  credit  except  a  grindstone."  Ah  ! 
that 's  it,  that 's  it,  only  I  forgot  to  make  a  hole  through 
it!" 

Ideas  may  also  be  exchanged  by  actions.  This  is  the 
first  and  strongest  language  of  nature.    It  may  be  employed, 


40 


WRITTEN  AND  SPOKEN  LANGUAGE. 


when  words  have  failed,  in  the  most  effectual  manner. 
The  angry  man,  choked  with  rage,  unable  to  speak,  tells 
the  violent  passions,  burning  in  his  bosom,  in  a  language 
which  can  not  be  mistaken.  The  actions  of  a  friend  are  a 
surer  test  of  friendship  than  all  the  honied  words  he  may- 
utter.  Actions  speak  louder  than  words.  The  first  im- 
pressions of  maternal  affection  are  produced  in  the  infant 
mind  by  the  soothing  attentions  of  the  mother.  In  the  same 
way  we  may  understand  the  language  of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
Certain  motions  express  certain  ideas.  These  being  duly 
arranged  and  conformed  to  our  alphabetic  signs,  and  well 
understood,  the  pupil  may  become  acquainted  with  book 
knowledge  as  well  as  we.  They  go  by  sight  and  not  by 
sound.  A  different  method  is  adopted  with  the  blind.  Let- 
ters with  them  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  feel  them. 
The  signs  thus  felt  correspond  with  the  sounds  they  hear. 
Here  they  must  stop.  They  cannot  see  to  describe.  Those 
who  are  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  blind  and  deaf,  can  have 
but  a  faint  knowledge  of  language,  or  the  ideas  of  others. 

On  similar  principles  we  may  explain  the  pantomime 
plays  sometimes  performed,  where  the  most  entertaining 
scenes  of  love  and  murder  are  represented,  but  not  a  word 
spoken. 

Three  things  are  always  to  be  born  in  mind  in  the  use 
and  study  of  all  language  :  1st,  the  thing  signified  ;  2d,  the 
idea  of  the  thing  ;  and  3d,  the  word  or  sign  chosen  to  repre- 
sent it. 

Things  exist. 

Thinking  beings  conceive  ideas  of  things. 
Those  who  employ  language  adopt  sounds  or  signs  to 
convey  those  ideas  to  others. 


PRINCIPLES  APPLY  UNIVERSALLY.      ^  41 

On  these  obvious  principles  rest  the  whole  superstructure 
of  all  language,  spoken  or  written.  Objects  are  presented 
to  the  nfiind,  impressions  are  there  nnade,  which,  retained, 
constitute  the  idea,  and,  by  agreement,  certain  words  are 
employed  as  the  future  signs  or  representations  of  those 
ideas.  If  we  saw  an  object  in  early  life  and  knew  its  name, 
the  mention  of  that  name  will  recal  afresh  the  idea  which 
had  long  lain  dormant  in  the  memory,  (if  I  may  so  speak,) 
and  we  can  converse  about  it  as  correctly  as  when  we  first 
saw  it. 

These  principles,  I  have  said,  hold  good  in  all  languages. 
Proof  of  this  may  not  improperly  be  offered  here,  provided 
it  be  not  too  prolix.    I  will  endeavor  to  be  brief. 

In  an  open  area  of  sufficient  dimensions  is  congregated 
a  delegation  from  every  language  under  heaven.  All  are 
so  arranged  as  to  face  a  common  center.  A  white  horse 
is  led  into  that  spot  and  all  look  at  the  living  animal 
which  stands  before  them.  The  same  impression  must  be 
made  on  all  minds  so  far  as  a  single  animal  is  concerned. 
But  as  the  whole  is  made  up  of  parts,  so  their  minds  will 
soon  diverge  from  a  single  idea,  and  one  will  think  of  his 
size,  compared  with  other  horses  ;  another  of  his  form  ;  an- 
other of  his  color.  Some  will  think  of  his  noble  appearance, 
others  of  his  ability  to  travel,  or  (in  jockey  phrase)  his 
speed.  The  farrier  will  look  for  his  blemishes,  to  see  if  he 
is  sound,  and  the  jockey  at  his  teeth,  to  guess  at  his  age. 
The  anatomist  will,  in  thought,  dissect  him  into  parts  and 
see  every  bone,  sinew,  cartilage,  blood  vessel,  his  stomach, 
lungs,  liver,  heart,  entrails  ;  every  part  will  be  laid  open  ; 
and  while  the  thoughtless  urchin  sees  a  single  object — a 
white  horse — others  will,  at  a  single  glance,  read  volumes  of 
instruction.    Oh  !  the  importance  of  knowledge  !  how  little 

D* 


42 


WRITTEN  AND  SPOKEN  LANGUAGE. 


is  it  regarded  !  What  funds  of  instruction  might  be  gath- 
ered from  the  lessons  every  where  presented  to  the  mind  ! 

One  impression  would  be  made  on  all  minds  in  reference 
to  the  single  tangible  object  before  them  ;  no  matter  how 
learned  or  ignorant.  There  stands  an  animal  obvious  to 
all.  Let  him  be  removed  out  of  sight,  and  a  very  exact 
picture  of  him  suspended  in  his  place.  All  again  agree. 
Here  then  is  the  proof  of  our  first  general  principle,  viz.  all 
language  depends  on  the  fixed  and  unvarying  laws  of  na- 
ture. 

Let  the  picture  be  removed  and  a  man  step  forth  and 
pronounce  the  word,  ipjpos.  The  Greek  starts  up  and  says, 
"  Yes,  it  is  so."  The  rest  do  not  comprehend  him.  He  then 
writes  out  distinctly,  I  fj  Jf  O  ^  •  They  are  in  the  dark 
as  to  the  meaning.  They  know  not  whether  a  horse,  a 
man,  or  a  goose  is  named.  All  the  Greeks,  however,  un- 
derstand the  meaning  the  same  as  when  the  horse  or  pic- 
ture was  before  them,  for  they  had  agreed  that  ippos  should 
represent  the  idea  of  that  animal. 

Forth  steps  another,  and  pronounces  the  word  chevaL 
Every  Frenchman  is  aroused  :  Oui,  monsieur  ?  Yes,  sir. 
Comprenez  vous  ?  Do  you  understand?  he  says  to  the  rest. 
But  they  are  dumb.  He  then  writes  C-H-E-V-A-L. 
All  are  as  ignorant  as  before,  save  the  Frenchmen  who  had 
agreed  that  clieval  should  be  the  name  for  horse. 

Next  go  yourseif,  thinking  all  will  understand  you,  and 
say,  horse ;  but,  lo  !  none  unacquainted  with  your  language 
are  the  wiser  for  the  sound  you  utter,  or  the  sign  you  sus- 
pended before  them  ;  save,  perhaps,  a  little  old  Saxon,  who, 
at  first  looks  deceived  by  the  similarity  of  sound,  but,  seeing 
the  sign,  is  as  demure  as  ever,  for  he  omits  the  e,  and  pro- 
nounces it  shorter  than  we  do,  more  like  a  yorkshire  man. 


DERIVATION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  43 


But  why  are  you  not  understood  ?  Because  others  have 
not  entered  into  an  agreement  with  you  that  h-o-r-s-e,  spoken 
or  written,  shall  represent  that  animal. 

Take  another  example.  Place  the  living  animal  called 
man  before  them.  Less  trouble  will  be  found  in  this  case 
than  in  the  former,  for  there  is  a  nearer  agreement  than  be- 
fore in  regard  to  the  signs  which  shall  be  employed  to  ex- 
press the  idea.  This  word  occurs  vvith  very  little  variation 
in  the  modern  languages,  derived  undoubtedly  from  the  Teu- 
tonic, with  a  little  change  in  the  spelling,  as  Saxon  mann  or 
morif  Gothic  manna,  German,  Danish,  Dutch,  Sweedish  and 
Icelandic  like  ours.  In  the  south  of  Europe,  however,  this 
word  varies  as  well  as  others. 

Our  language  is  derived  more  directly  from  the  old  Sax- 
on than  from  any  other,  but  has  a  great  similarity  to  the 
French  and  Latin,  and  a  kind  of  cousin-german  to  all  the 
languages  of  Europe,  ancient  and  modern.  Ours,  indeed, 
is  a  compound  from  most  other  languages,  retaining  some  of 
their  beauties  and  many  of  their  defects.  We  can  boast  little 
distinctive  character  of  our  own.  As  England  was  possessed 
by  different  nations  at  different  periods,  so  different  dia- 
lects were  introduced,  and  we  can  trace  our  language  to 
as  many  sources,  German,  Danish,  Saxon,  French,  and 
Roman,  which  were  the  different  nations  amalgamated 
into  the  British  empire.  We  retain  little  of  the  real  old 
english — few  words  which  may  not  be  traced  to  a  foreign 
extraction.  Different  people  setthng  in  a  country  would  of 
course  carry  their  ideas  and  manner  of  expressing  them  ; 
and  from  the  whole  compound  a  general  agreement  would, 
in  process  of  time,  take  place,  and  a  uniform  language  be 
established.    Such  is  the  origin  and  condition  of  our  Ian- 


44 


WRITTEN  AND  SPOKEN  LANGUAGE. 


guage,  as  well  as  every  other  modern  tongue  of  which  we 
have  any  knowledge. 

There  is  one  practice  of  which  our  savans  are  guilty,  at 
which  I  do  most  seriously  demur — the  extravagant  intro- 
duction  of  exotic  words  into  our  vocabulary,  apparently  for 
no  other  object  than  to  swell  the  size  of  a  dictionary,  and 
boast  of  having  found  out  and  defined  thousands  of  words 
more  than  any  body  else.  A  mania  seems  to  have  seized 
our  lexicographers,  so  that  they  have  forsaken  the  good  old 
style  of  "plainness  of  speech,"  and  are  flourishing  and 
brandishing  about  in  a  cloud  of  verbiage  as  though  the 
whole  end  of  instruction  was  to  teach  loquacity.  And  some 
of  our  popular  writers  and  speakers  have  caught  the  infec- 
tion, and  flourish  in  borrowed  garments,  prizing  themselves 
most  highly  when  they  use  words  and  phrases  which  no 
body  can  understand. 

I  will  not  contend  that  in  the  advancement  of  the  arts 
and  sciences  it  may  not  be  proper  to  introduce  foreign  terms 
as  the  means  of  conveying  a  knowledge  of  those  improve- 
ments to  others.  It  is  better  than  to  coin  new  words,  inas- 
much  as  they  are  generally  adopted  by  all  modern  nations. 
In  this  way  all  languages  are  approximating  together  ;  and 
when  the  light  of  truth,  science,  and  religion,  has  fully 
shone  on  all  the  nations,  we  may  hope  one  language  will 
be  spoken,  and  the  promise  be  fulfilled,  that  God  has  "  turned 
unto  the  people  a  pure  language,  that  they  may  call  upon 
the  name  of  the  Lord,  to  serve  him  with  one  consent." 

New  ideas  are  formed  like  new  inventions.  Established 
principles  are  employed  in  a  new  combination,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  new  manifestation.  Words  are  chosen  as  nearly 
allied  to  former  ideas  as  possible,  to  express  or  represent 
this  new  combination.    Thus,  Fulton  applied  steam  power 


NEW  WORDS.  SCIENTIFIC  TERMS. 


45 


to  navigation.  A  new  idea  was  produced.  A  boat  was 
seen  passing  along  the  waters  without  the  aid  of  wind  or 
tide.  Instead  of  coining  a  new  word  to  express  the  whole, 
a  word  which  nobody  would  understand,  two  old  ones 
were  combined,  and  "  steamboat^''  became  the  sign  to  rep- 
resent the  idea  of  the  thing  beheld.  So  with  rail-road,  cot- 
ton-mill, and  gun-powder.  In  the  same  way  we  may  ac- 
count for  most  words  employed  in  science,  although  in  that 
case  we  are  more  dependant  on  foreign  languages,  in 
as  much  as  a  large  portion  of  our  knowledge  is  derived 
from  them.  But  we  may  account  for  them  on  the  same 
principle  as  above.  Phrenology  is  a  compound  of  two 
greek  words,  and  means  the  science  or  knowledge  of  the 
mind.  So  of  geology,  mineralogy,  &c.  But  when  im- 
provements are  made  by  those  who  speak  the  english, 
words  in  our  own  language  are  employed  and  used  not  only 
by  ourselves,  but  also  by  those  nations  who  profit  by  our 
investigations. 

I  trust  I  have  now  said  enough  on  the  general  principles 
of  language  as  applied  to  things.  In  the  next  lecture  I  will 
come  down  to  a  sort  of  bird's  eye  view  of  grammar.  But 
my  soul  abhors  arbitrary  rules  so  devoutly,  I  can  make  no 
promises  how  long  I  will  continue  in  close  communion  with 
set  forms  of  speech.  I  love  to  wander  too  well  to  remain 
confined  to  one  spot,  narrowed  up  in  the  limits  fixed  by 
others.  Freedom  is  the  empire  of  the  mind  ;  it  abjures 
all  fetters,  all  slavery.  It  kneels  at  the  altar  of  virtue  and 
worships  at  the  shrine  of  truth.  No  obstacles  should  be 
thrown  in  the  way  of  its  progress.  No  limits  should  be  set 
to  it  but  those  of  the  Almighty. 


LECTURE  IV. 


ON  NOUNS. 

Nouns  defined. — Things. — Qualities  of  matter. — Mind. — Spiritual 
beings. — Qualities  of  mind. — How  learned. — Imaginary  things. — 
Negation. — Names  of  actions. — Proper  nouns. — Characteristic 
names. — Proper  nouns  may  become  common. 

Your  attention  is,  this  evening,  invited  to  the  first  divisions 
of  words,  called  Nouns.  This  is  a  most  important  class,  and 
as  such  deserves  our  particular  notice. 

Nouns  are  the  names  of  things. 

The  word  noun  is  derived  from  the  Latin  nomen,  French 
nom.    It  means  name.    Hence  the  definition  above  given. 

In  grammar  it  is  employed  to  distinguish  that  class  of 
words  which  name  things,  or  stand  as  signs  or  representa- 
tives of  things. 

We  use  the  word  thing  in  its  broadest  sense,  including 
every  possible  entity  ;  every  being,  or  thing,  animate  or  in- 
animate, material  or  immaterial,  real  or  imaginary,  phys- 
ical,  moral,  or  intellectual.  It  is  the  noun  of  the  Saxon 
ihincan  or  thingian,  to  think  ;  and  is  used  to  express  every 
conceivable  object  of  thought,  in  whatever  form  or  manner 
presented  to  the  human  mind. 

Every  word  employed  to  designate  things,  or  name  them, 
is  to  be  ranked  in  the  class  called  nouns,  or  names.  You 
have  only  to  determine  whether  a  word  is  used  thus,  to  learn 


QUALITIES  OF  MATTER.  MIND. 


47 


whether  it  belongs  to  this  or  some  other  class  of  words. 
Here  let  me  repeat  : 

1.  Things  exist. 

2.  We  conceive  ideas  of  things. 

3.  We  use  sounds  or  signs  to  communicate  these  ideas  to 
others. 

4.  We  denominate  the  class  of  words  thus  used,  nouns. 

Perhaps  I  ought  to  stop  here,  or  pass  to  another  topic. 
But  as  these  lectures  are  intended  to  be  so  plain  that  all 
can  understand  my  meaning,  I  must  indulge  in  a  few  more 
remarks  before  advancing  farther. 

In  addition  to  individual,  tangible  objects,  we  conceive 
ideas  of  the  qualities  of  things,  and  give  names  to  such  qual- 
ities, which  become  nouns.  Thus,  the  hardness  of  iron,  the 
heat  of  fire,  the  color  of  a  rose,  the  bitterness  of  gall,  the 
er?'or  of  grammars.  The  following  may  serve  to  make  my 
views  more  plain.  Take  two  tumblers,  the  one  half  filled 
with  water,  the  other  with  milk  ;  mix  them  together.  You 
can  now  talk  of  the  milk  in  the  water,  or  the  water  in  the 
milk.  Your  ideas  are  distinct,  tho  the  objects  are  so  in- 
timately blended,  that  they  can  not  be  separated.  So  with 
the  qualities  of  things. 

W e  also  speak  of  mind,  intellect,  soul ;  but  to  them  we 
can  give  no  form,  and  of  them  paint  no  likeness.  Yet  we 
have  ideas  of  them,  and  employ  words  to  express  them, 
which  become  nouns. 

This  accounts  for  the  reason  why  the  great  Parent  Intel- 
lect has  strictly  forbidden,  in  the  decalogue,  that  a  likeness 
of  him  should  be  constructed.  His  being  and  attributes  are 
discoverable  only  thro  the  medium  of  his  works  and  word. 
No  man  can  see  him  and  live.    It  would  be  the  height  of 


48 


ON  NOUNS. 


folly — it  would  be  more — it  would  be  blasphemy — to  at- 
tempt to  paint  the  likeness  of  him  whose  presence  fills  im- 
mensity— whose  center  is  every  where,  and  whose  circum- 
ference is  no  where.  The  name  of  this  Spirit  or  Being 
was  held  in  the  most  profound  reverence  by  the  Jews,  as 
we  shall  have  occasion  to  mention  when  we  come  to  treat 
of  the  verb  to  be. 

We  talk  of  angels,  and  have  seen  the  unhallowed  attempt 
to  describe  their  likeness  in  the  form  of  pictures,  which  dis- 
play  the  fancy  of  the  artist  very  finely,  but  give  a  misera- 
ble idea  of  those  pure  spirits  who  minister  at  the  altar  of 
God,  and  chant  his  praises  in  notes  of  the  most  unspeakable 
delight. 

We  have  also  seen  death  and  the  pale  horse,  the  firy 
dragon,  the  mystery  of  Babylon,  and  such  hke  things,  re- 
presented on  canvass  ;  but  they  betoken  more  of  human 
talent  to  depict  the  marvellous,  than  a  strict  regard  for  truth. 
Beelzebub,  imps,  and  all  Pandemonium,  may  be  vividly  im- 
agined and  finely  arranged  in  fiction,  and  we  can  name 
them.  Wizzards,  witches,  and  fairies,  may  play  their  sport- 
ive  tricks  in  the  human  brain,  and  receive  names  as  tho  they 
were  real. 

We  also  think  and  speak  of  the  qualities  and  affections 
of  the  mind  as  well  as  matter,  as  wisdom,  knowledge,  vir- 
tue, vice,  love,  hatred,  anger.  Our  conceptions  in  this  case 
may  be  less  distinct,  but  we  have  ideas,  and  use  words  to 
express  them.  There  is,  we  confess,  a  greater  liability  to 
mistake  and  misunderstand  when  treating  of  mind  and  its 
qualities,  than  of  matter.  The  reason  is  evident,  people 
know  less  of  it.  Its  operations  are  less  distinct  and  more 
varying. 


IMAGINARY  THINGS. 


49 


The  child  first  sees  material  objects.  It  is  taught  to 
name  them.  It  next  learns  the  qualities  of  things  ;  as  the 
sweetness  of  sugar,  the  darkness  of  night,  the  beauty  of 
flowers.  From  this  it  ascends  by  gradation  to  the  higher 
attainments  of  knowledge  as  revealed  in  the  empire  of  mind, 
as  well  as  matter.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  this 
advancement  be  easy,  natural,  and  thoro.  It  should  be 
constantly  impressed  with  the  importance  of  obtaining  clear 
and  definite  ideas  of  things,  and  never  employ  words  till 
it  has  ideas  to  express  ;  never  name  a  thing  of  which  it  has 
no  knowledge.    This  is  ignorance. 

It  would  be  well,  perhaps,  to  extend  this  remark  to  those 
older  than  children,  in  years,  but  less  in  real  practical  know- 
ledge.  The  remark  is  of  such  general  application,  that  no 
specification  need  be  made,  except  to  the  case  before  us ; 
to  those  aflTected  proficients  in  grammar,  whose  only  know- 
ledge  is  the  memory  of  words,  which  to  them  have  no  mean- 
ings, if,  indeed,  the  writers  themselves  had  any  to  express 
by  them  ;  a  fact  we  regard  as  questionable,  at  best.  There 
is  hardly  a  teacher  of  grammar,  whose  self-esteem  is  not 
enormous,  who  will  not  confess  himself  ignorant  on  many  of 
the  important  principles  of  language  ;  that  he  has  never  un- 
derstood, and  could  never  explain  them.  He  finds  no  diffi- 
culty in  repeating  what  the  books  say,  but  if  called  upon  to 
express  an  opinion  of  his  own,  he  has  none  to  give.  He  has 
learned  and  used  words  without  knowing  their  meaning, 

Children  should  be  taught  language  as  they  are  taught 
music.  They  should  learn  the  simple  tones  on  which  the 
whole  science  depends.  Distinct  impressions  of  sounds 
should  be  made  on  their  minds,  and  the  characters  which 
represent  them  should  be  inseparably  associated  with  them. 
They  will  then  learn  tunes  from  the  compositions  of  those 

£ 


50 


ON  NOUNS. 


sounds,  as  represented  by  notes.  By  dint  of  application, 
they  will  soon  become  familiar  with  these  principles,  if  pos- 
sessed of  a  talent  for  song,  and  may  soon  pass  the  acme  with 
ease,  accuracy,  and  rapidity.  But  there  are  those  who  may 
sing  very  prettily,  and  tolerably  correct,  who  have  never 
studied  the  first  rudiments  of  music.  But  such  can  never 
become  adepts  in  the  science. 

So  there  are  those  who  use  language  correctly,  who  never 
saw  the  inside  of  a  grammar  book,  and  who  never  exam- 
ined the  principles  on  which  it  depends.  But  this,  by  no 
means,  proves  that  it  is  better  to  sing  by  rote,  than  "  with 
the  understanding."  These  rudiments,  however,  should 
form  the  business  of  the  nursery,  rather  than  the  grammar 
school.  Every  mother  should  labor  to  give  distinct  and 
forcible  impressions  of  such  things  as  she  learns  her  children 
to  name.  She  should  carefully  prevent  them  from  em- 
ploying words  which  have  no  meaning,  and  still  more 
strictly  should  she  guard  them  against  attaching  a  wrong 
meaning  to  those  they  do  use.  In  this  way,  the  foundation 
for  future  knowledge  and  eminence,  would  be  laid  broad  and 
deep.    But  I  wander. 

We  attach  names  to  imaginary  things  ;  as  ghosts,  genii, 
imps. 

To  this  class  belong  the  thirty  thousand  gods  of  the  an- 
cients, who  were  frequently  represented  by  emblems  sig- 
nificant of  the  characters  attached  to  them.  We  employ 
words  to  name  these  imaginary  things,  so  that  we  read  and 
converse  about  them  understandingly,  tho  our  ideas  may  be 
exceedingly  various. 

Nouns  are  also  used  to  express  negation,  of  which  no 
idea  can  be  formed.  In  this  case,  the  mind  rests  on  what 
exists,  and  employs  a  word  to  express  what  does  not.  We 


NEGATION.  NAMES  OF  ACTIONS. 


51 


speak  of  a  hole  in  the  paper.  But  we  can  form  no  idea  of 
a  hole,  separated  from  the  surrounding  substances.  Re- 
move  the  parts  of  the  paper  till  nothing  is  left,  and  then  you 
may  look  in  vain  for  the  hole.  It  is  not  there.  It  never 
was.  In  the  same  way  we  use  the  words  nothing,  nobody, 
nonentity,  vacuum,  absence,  space,  blank,  annihilation,  and 
oblivion.  These  are  relative  terms,  to  be  understood  in  re- 
ference to  things  which  are  known  to  exist.  We  must  know 
of  something  before  we  can  talk  of  nothing,  of  an  entity  be- 
fore we  can  think  of  nonentity. 

In  a  similar  way  we  employ  words  to  name  actions,  which 
are  produced  by  the  changes  of  objects.  We  speak  of  a 
race,  of  a  flight,  of  a  sitting  or  session,  of  a  journey,  of  a 
ride,  of  a  walk,  of  a  residence,  etc.  In  all  these  cases,  the 
mind  is  fixed  on  the  persons  who  performed  these  things. 
Take  for  example,  a  race.  Of  that,  we  can  conceive  no 
idea  separate  from  the  agent  or  object  which  ran  the  race. 
Without  some  other  word  to  inform  us  we  could  not  decide 
whether  a  horse  race,  afoot  race,  a  boat  race,  the  race  of 
a  mill,  or  some  other  race,  was  the  object  of  remark.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  flight,  for  we  read  of  the  flight  of  birds, 
the  flight  of  Mahommed,  the  flight  of  armies,  and  the  flight 
of  intellect. 

We  also  give  names  to  actions  as  tho  they  were  taking 
place  in  the  present  tense.  "  The  reading  of  the  report 
was  deferred  ;"  steamboat  racing  is  dangerous  to  public 
safety  ;  stealing  is  a  crime ;  false  teaching  deserves  the 
reprobation  of  all. 

The  hints  I  have  given  will  assist  you  in  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  nouns  as  used  to  express  ideas  in  vocal  or 
written  language.  This  subject  might  be  pursued  further 
with  profit,  if  time  would  permit.    As  the  time  allotted  to 


52 


ON  NOUNS. 


this  lecture  is  nearly  exhausted,  I  forbear.  I  shall  hereaf- 
ter have  occasion  to  show  how  a  whole  phrase  may  be 
used  to  nanne  an  idea,  and  as  such  stand  as  the  agent  or 
object  of  a  verb. 

Some  nouns  are  specifically  used  to  designate  certain  ob- 
jects, and  distinguish  them  from  the  class  to  which  they 
usually  belong.  In  this  way  they  assume  a  distinctive 
character,  and  are  usually  denominated  proper  nouns. 
They  apply  to  persons,  places  and  things  ;  as,  John  Smith, 
Boston,  Hylax.  Boy  is  applied  in  common  to  all  young 
males  of  the  human  species,  and  as  such  is  a  common  noun 
or  name.  John  Smith  designates  a  particular  boy  from  the 
rest. 

Proper  names  may  be  also  applied  to  animals  and  things. 
The  stable  keeper  and  stageman  has  a  name  for  every 
horse  he  owns,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  horses  ;  the  dai- 
ryman for  his  cows,  the  boy  for  his  dog,  and  the  girl  for 
her  doll.  Any  word,  in  fact,  may  become  a  proper  name 
by  being  specifically  used ;  as  the  ship  Fair  Trader,  the 
brig  Success,  sloop  Delight  in  Peace,  the  race  horse  Eclipse, 
Black  Hawk,  Round  Nose,  and  Red  Jacket. 

Proper  names  were  formerly  used  in  reference  to  certain 
traits  of  character  or  circumstances  connected  with  the  place 
or  thing.  Abram  was  changed  to  Abraham,  the  former 
signifying  an  elevated  father,  the  latter,  the  father  of  a  mul- 
titude. Isaac  signified  laughter,  and  was  given  because  his 
mother  laughed  at  the  message  of  the  angel.  Jacob  signi- 
fied a  supplanfer,  because  he  was  to  obtain  the  birthright 
of  his  elder  brother. 

A  ridiculous  rage  obtained  with  our  puritan  fathers  to 
express  scripture  sentiments  in  the  names  of  their  children, 


PROPER  NOUNS.  CHARACTERISTIC  NAMES.  53 


aa  may  be  seen  by  consulting  the  records  of  the  Plymouth 
and  Massachusetts  colonies. 

This  practice  has  not  wholly  gone  out  of  use  in  our  day, 
for  we  hear  of  the  names  of  Hope,  Mercy,  Patience,  Comfort, 
Experience,  Temperance,  Faith,  Deliverance,  Return,  and 
such  like,  applied  usually  to  females,  (being  more  in  char- 
acter probably,)  and  sometimes  to  males.  We  have  also 
the  names  of  White,  Black,  Green,  Red,  Gray,  Brown,  Ol- 
ive, Whitefield,  Blackwood,  Redfield,  Woodhouse,  Stone- 
house,  Waterhouse,  Woodbridge,  Swiftwater,  Lowater, 
Drinkwater,  Spring,  Brooks,  Rivers,  Pond,  Lake,  Fair- 
weather,  Merry  weather,  Weatherhead,  Pvice,  W^heat,  Straw, 
Greatrakes,  Bird,  Fowle,  Crow,  Hawks,  Eagle,  Partridge, 
Wren,  Goslings,  Fox,  Camel,  Zebra,  Bear,  Wolf,  Hogg, 
Rain,  Snow,  Haile,  Frost,  Fogg,  Mudd,  Clay,  Sands,  H^ills, 
Valley,  Field,  Stone,  Flint,  Silver,  Gould,  and  Diamond. 

Proper  nouns  may  also  become  common  when  used  as 
words  of  general  import ;  as,  dunces,  corrupted  from  Duns 
Scotus,  a  distinguished  theologian,  born  at  Dunstane,  North- 
umberland,  an  opposer  of  the  doctrines  of  Thomas  Aqui- 
nus.  He  is  a  real  solomon,  jack  tars,  judases,  antichrist, 
and  so  on. 

Nouns  may  also  be  considered  in  respect  to  person,  num. 
ber,  gender,  and  positive,  or  case.  There  are  three  per- 
sons, two  numbers,  tivo  genders,  and  two  cases.  But  the 
further  consideration  of  these  things  will  be  deferred,  which, 
together  with  Pronouns,  will  form  the  subject  of  our  next 
lecture. 

E* 


LECTURE  V. 


ON  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

Nouns  in  respect  to  persons. — Number. — Singular. — Plural. — How 
formed. — Foreign  plurals. — Proper  names  admit  of  plurals. — 
Gender. — No  neuter. — In  figurative  language. — Errors. — Posi- 
tion or  case. — Agents. — Objects. — Possessive  case  considered. — 
A  definitive  word. — Pronouns. — One  kind. — Originally  nouns. — 
Specifically  applied. 

We  resume  the  consideration  of  nouns  this  evening,  in 
relation  to  person,  number,  gender,  and  position  or  case. 

In  the  use  of  language  there  is  a  speaker,  person  spoken 
to,  and  things  spoken  of.  Those  who  speak  are  the  first 
persons,  those  who  hear  the  second,  and  those  who  are  the 
subject  of  conversation  the  third. 

The  first  and  second  persons  are  generally  used  in  refer- 
ence to  human  beings  capable  of  speech  and  understanding. 
But  we  sometimes  condesend  to  hold  converse  with  animals 
and  inanimate  matter.  The  bird  trainer  talks  to  his  par- 
rots, the  coachman  to  his  horses,  the  sailor  to  the  winds, 
and  the  poet  to  his  landscapes,  towers,  and  wild  imaginings, 
to  which  he  gives  a  "  local  habitation  and  a  name." 

By  metaphor,  language  is  put  into  the  mouths  of  animals, 
particularly  in  fables.  By  a  still  further  license,  places 
and  things,  flowers,  trees,  forests,  brooks,  lakes,  moun- 
tains, towers,  castles,  stars,  &c.  are  made  to  speak  the  most 
eloquent  language,  in  the  first  person,  in  addresses  the  most 


PERSON.  NUMBER. 


55 


pathetic.  The  propriety  of  such  a  use  of  words  I  will  not 
stop  to  question,  but  simply  remark  that  such  figures  should 
never  be  employed  in  the  instruction  of  children.  As  the 
mind  expands,  no  longer  content  to  grovel  amidst  mundane 
things,  we  mount  the  pegasus  of  imagination  and  soar  thro 
the  blissful  or  terrific  scenes  of  fancy  and  fiction,  and  study 
a  language  before  unknown.  But  it  would  be  an  unright- 
eous demand  upon  others,  to  require  them  to  understand  us  ; 
and  quite  as  unpardonable  to  brand  them  with  ignorance 
because  they  do  not. 

Most  nouns  are  in  the  third  person.  More  things  are 
talked  about  than  talk  themselves,  or  are  talked  to  by  oth- 
ers. Hence  there  is  little  necessity  for  teaching  children 
to  specify  except  in  the  first  or  second  person,  which  is 
very  easily  done. 

In  English  there  are  two  numbers,  singular  and  plural. 
The  singular  is  confined  to  one,  the  plural  is  extended  to 
any  indefinite  number.  The  Greeks,  adopted  a  dual  num- 
ber which  they  used  to  express  two  objects  united  in  pairs, 
or  couples  ;  as,  a  span  of  horses,  a  yoke  of  oxen,  a  brace 
of  pistols,  a  pair  of  shoes.  We  express  the  same  idea  with 
more  words,  using  the  singular  to  represent  the  union  of  the 
two.  We  also  extend  this  use  of  words  and  employ  what 
are  called  nouns  of  multitude  ;  as,  a  people,  an  army,  a 
host,  a  nation.  These  and  similar  words  are  used  in  the 
singular  referring  to  many  combined  in  a  united  whole,  or 
in  the  plural  comprehending  a  diversity  ;  as,  "  the  armies 
met,"  *'  the  nations  are  at  peace."  People  admits  no  change 
on  account  of  number.  We  say  "  mxiny  people  are  collect- 
ed together  and  form  a  numerous  people." 

The  plural  is  not  always  to  be  understood  as  expressing 
an  increase  of  number,  but  of  qualities  or  sorts  of  things,  as 


56 


ON  NOUNS  AND  PKONUONS. 


the  merchant  has  a  variety  of  sugars,  wines,  teas,  drugs, 
medicines,  paints  and  dye-woods.  We  also  speak  of  hopes , 
fears,  loves,  anxieties. 

Some  nouns  admit  of  no  plural,  in  fact,  or  in  use  ;  as, 
chaos,  universe,  fitness,  immortality,  immensity,  eternity. 
Others  admit  of  no  singular  ;  as,  scissors,  tongs,  vitals,  mo- 
lasses. These  words  probably  once  had  singulars,  but  hav- 
ing no  use  for  them  they  became  obsolete.  We  have  long 
been  accustomed  to  associate  the  two  halves  of  shears  to- 
gether, so  that  in  speaking  of  one  whole,  we  say  shears,  and 
of  a  part,  half  of  a  shears.  But  of  some  words  originally, 
and  in  fact  plural,  we  have  formed  a  singular  ;  as,  "  one 
twin  died,  and,  tho  the  other  one  survived  its  dangerous 
illness,  the  mother  wept  bitterly  for  her  twins."  Twin  is 
composed  of  two  and  one.  It  is  found  in  old  books,  spelled 
twane,  two-one,  or  twin.  Thus,  the  twi-\\g\\i  is  formed  by 
the  mingling  of  two  lights,  or  the  division  of  the  rays  of  light 
by  the  approaching  or  receding  darkness.  They  twain 
shall  be  one  flesh.    Sheep  and  deer  are  singular  or  plural. 

Most  plurals  are  formed  by  adding  s  to  the  sin^nil  ir,  or, 
when  euphony  requires  \\,es ;  as,  tree,  trees  ;  sun,sui  s  ,  dish, 
dishes;  box,  boxes.  Some  retain  the  old  plural  for  i  ;  as, 
ox,  oxen  ;  child,  children  ;  chick,  chicken  ;  kit,  kitter,.  But 
habit  has  burst  the  barrier  of  old  rules,  and  we  now  t.Jk  of 
chicks  and  chickens,  kits  and  kittens.  Oxrn  alont'  stands 
as  a  monument  raised  to  the  memory  of  ;inaltered  saxon 
plurals. 

Some  nouns  form  irregular  plurals.  'Oho.>"^  ending  in^ 
change  that  letter  to  v  and  then  add  es ,  is,  naif,  h,  Ives; 
leaf,  leaves;  wolf,  wolves.  Those  ending  ii  y  chanc*  -  that 
to  i  and  add  the  es  ;  as,  cherry,  cherries  ;  berry,  b  M-ries  ; 
except  when  the  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  in  which  case  it 


FORMATION  OF  THE  PLURAL  NUMBER. 


57 


only  adds  the  s  ;  as,  day,  days  ;  money,  moneys  (not  ies) ; 
attorney,  attorneys.  All  this  is  to  make  the  sound  more 
easy  and  harmonious.  F  and  v  were  formerly  used  indis- 
criminately,  in  singulars  as  well  as  plurals,  and,  in  fact,  in 
the  composition  of  all  words  where  they  occurred.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  i  and  y, 

"  The  Fader  (Father)  Almychty  of  the  heven  abuf  (above) 
In  the  mene  tyme,  unto  Juno  his  luf  (love) 
Thus  spak  ;  and  sayd." 

Douglas,  booke  12,  pag.  441. 

"  They  lyued  in  ioye  and  in  fe ly  cite 

For  eche  of  hem  had  other  lefe  and  dere." 

Chaucer,  Monks  Tale,fol.  81,  p.  1. 
"  When  straite  twane  beefes  he  tooke 
And  an  the  aultar  layde." 

The  reason  why  y  is  changed  into  i  in  the  formation  of 
plurals,  and  in  certain  other  cases,  is,  I  apprehend,  account- 
ed for  from  the  fact  that  words  which  now  end  in  y  former- 
ly  ended  in  ie,  as  may  be  seen  in  all  old  books.  The  reg- 
ular plural  was  then  formed  by  adding  s. 

"  And  upon  those  members  of  the  bodie,  which  wee  thinke 
most  unhonest,  put  wee  more  honestie  on."  "  It  rejoyceth 
not  in  iniquitie — diversitie  of  gifts — all  thinges  edifie  not." 
See  old  bible,  1  Cor.,  chap.  13  and  14. 

Other  words  form  their  plurals  still  more  differently,  for 
which  no  other  rule  than  habit  can  be  given  ;  as,  man,  men  ; 
foot,  feet ;  tooth,  teeth  ;  die,  dice  ;  mouse,  mice  ;  penny, 
pence,  and  sometimes  pennies,  when  applied  to  distinct 
pieces  of  money,  and  not  to  value. 

Many  foreign  nouns  retain  the  plural  form  as  used  by  the 
nations  from  whom  we  have  borrowed  them  ;  as,  cherub, 
cherubim ;  seraph,  seraphim  ;  radius,  radii ;  memorandum, 


i 


58 


ON  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 


memoranda  ;  datum,  data,  &c.  We  should  be  pleased  to 
have  such  words  carried  home,  or,  if  they  arc  ours  by  vir- 
tue of  possession,  let  them  be  adopted  into  our  family,  and 
put  on  the  garments  of  naturalized  citizens,  and  no  longer 
appear  as  lonely  strangers  among  us.  There  is  great  auk- 
wardness  in  adding  the  english  to  the  hebrew  plural  of 
cherub,  as  the  translators  of  the  common  version  of  the 
bible  have  done.  They  use  cheruh  in  the  singular  and 
cherubms  in  the  plural.  The  s  should  be  omitted  and  the 
Hebrew  plural  retained,  or  the  preferable  course  adopted, 
and  the  final  s  be  added,  making  cherubs,  seraphs,  &c. 
The  same  might  be  said  of  all  foreign  nouns.  It  would  add 
much  to  the  regularity,  dignity,  and  beauty,  of  our  vernac- 
ular tongue. 

Proper  nouns  admit  of  the  plural  number  ;  as,  there  are 
sixty-four  John  Smiths  in  New-York,  twenty  Arnolds  in 
Providence,  and  fifteen  Davises  in  Boston.  As  we  are  not 
accustomed  to  form  the  plurals  of  proper  names  there  is 
not  that  ease  and  harmony  in  the  first  use  of  them  that  wo 
have  found  in  those  with  which  we  are  more  familiar ;  es- 
pecially those  we  have  rarely  heard  pronounced.  Habit 
surmounts  the  greatest  obstacles  and  makes  things  the  most 
harsh  and  unpleasant  appear  soft  and  agreeable. 

Gender  is  applied  to  the  distinction  of  the  sexes.  There 
are  two — masculine  and  feminine.  The  former  is  applied  to 
males,  the  latter  to  females.  Those  words  which  belong  to 
neither  gender,  have  been  called  neuter,  that  is,  no  gender. 
But  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  perplex  the  minds  of  learners 
with  negatives.  Let  them  distinguish  between  masculine 
and  feminine  genders,  and  little  need  be  said  to  them  about 
a  neuter. 


GENDERS.  NO  NEUTER.  ERRORS. 


59 


There  are  some  nouns  of  both  genders,  as  student,  writer, 
pupil,  person,  citizen,  resident.  Poet,  author,  editor,  and 
sonrie  other  words,  have  of  late  been  applied  to  females,  in- 
stead of  Tpoeiess,  authore^^,  editress.  Fashion  will  soon 
preclude  the  necessity  of  this  former  distinction. 

Some  languages  determine  their  genders  by  the  form  of 
the  endings  of  their  nouns,  and  what  is  thus  made  masculine 
in  Rome,  may  be  feminine  in  France.  It  is  owing,  no  doubt, 
to  this  practice,  in  other  nations,  that  we  have  attached  the 
idea  of  gender  to  inanimate  things  ;  as,  "  the  sun,  he  shines 
majestically  ;"  while  of  the  moon,  it  is  said,  "  she  sheds  a 
milder  radiance."  But  we  can  not  coincide  with  the  rea- 
son assigned  by  Mr.  Murray,  for  this  distinction.  His  no- 
tion is  not  valid.  It  does  not  correspond  with  facts.  While 
in  the  south  of  Europe  the  sun  is  called  masculine  and  the 
moon  feminine,  the  northern  nations  invariably  reverse  the 
distinction,  particularly  the  dialects  of  the  Scandinavian.  It 
was  so  in  our  own  language  in  the  time  of  Shakspeare.  He 
calls  the  sun  a  ^^fair  wench." 

By  figures  of  rhetoric,  genders  may  be  attached  to  inani- 
mate  matter.  Where  things  are  personified,  we  usually 
speak  of  them  as  masculine  and  feminine  ;  but  this  practice 
depends  on  fancy,  and  not  on  any  fixed  rules.  There  is,  in 
truth,  but  two  genders,  and  those  confined  to  animals.  When 
we  break  these  rules,  and  follow  the  undirected  wanderings 
of  fancy,  we  can  form  no  rules  to  regulate  our  words.  We 
may  have  as  many  fanciful  ones  as  we  please,  but  they  will 
not  apply  in  common  practice.  For  example  :  poets  and 
artists  have  usually  attached  female  loveliness  to  angels, 
and  placed  them  in  the  feminine  gender.  But  they  are  in- 
variably used  in  the  masculine  thro  out  the  scriptures. 


60 


ON  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 


There  is  an  apparent  absurdity  in  saying  of  the  ship 
General  Williams,  she  is  beautiful ;  or,  of  the  steaniboat 
Benjamin  Franklin,  sTie  is  out  of  date.  It  were  far  better 
to  use  no  gender  in  such  cases.  But  if  people  will  continue 
the  practice  of  making  distinctions  where  there  are  none, 
they  must  do  it  from  habit  and  whim,  and  not  from  any  rea- 
son or  propriety. 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  we  usually  distinguish 
the  forms  of  words  in  reference  to  gender.  1st.  By  words 
which  are  different ;  as  boy,  girl;  uncle,  aunt;  father,  mother. 
2d.  By  a  different  termination  of  the  same  word  ;  as  in- 
structor,  instructress  ;  lion,  lioness  ;  poet,  poetess.  Ess  is 
a  contraction  from  the  hebrew  essa,  a  female.  3d.  By 
prefixing  another  word ;  as,  a  male  child,  a  female  child  ; 
a  man  servant,  a  maid  servant;  a  he-goat,  a  she-goat. 

The  last  consideration  that  attaches  to  nouns,  is  the  jposi- 
tion  they  occupy  in  written  or  spoken  language,  in  relation 
to  other  words,  as  being  agents,  or  objects  of  action.  This 
is  termed  position » 

There  are  two  positions  in  which  nouns  stand  in  reference 
to  their  meaning  and  use.  First,  as  agents  of  action,  as 
David  killed  Goliah.  Second,  as  objects  on  which  action 
terminates  ;  as,  Richard  conquered  Henry.  These  two  dis- 
tinctions should  be  observed  in  the  use  of  all  nouns.  But 
the  propriety  of  this  division  will  be  more  evident  when  we 
come  to  treat  of  verbs,  their  agents  and  objects. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  we  have  abandoned  the  use  of 
the  possessive  case,^^  a  distinction  which  has  been  insisted 
on  in  our  grammars  ;  and  also  changed  the  names  of  the 
other  two.  As  we  would  adopt  nothing  that  is  new  without 
first  being  convinced  that  something  is  needed  which  the 
thing  proposed  will  supply  ;  so  we  would  reject  nothing  that 


POSITION,  OR  CASE.  AGENTS.  OBJECTS.  61 

is  old,  till  we  have  found  it  useless  and  cunnbersome.  It 
will  be  admitted  on  all  hands  that  the  fewer  and  simpler  the 
-rules  of  grammar,  the  more  readily  will  they  be  understood, 
and  the  more  correctly  applied.  We  should  guard,  on  the 
one  hand,  against  having  so  many  as  to  perplex,  and  on  the 
other,  retain  enough  to  apply  in  the  correct  use  of  language. 
It  is  on  this  ground  that  we  have  proposed  an  improvement 
in  the  names  and  number  of  cases,  or  positions. 

The  word  noun  signifies  name,  and  nominative  is  the  ad- 
jective  derived  from  noun,  and  partakes  of  the  same  mean- 
ing. Hence  the  nominative  or  naming  case  may  apply  as 
correctly  to  the  object  as  the  agent.  "  John  strikes  Thom- 
as, and  Thomas  strikes  John.^^  John  and  Thomas  name 
the  boys  who  strike,  but  in  the  first  case  John  is  the  actor 
or  agent  and  Thomas  the  object.  In  the  latter  it  is  changed. 
To  use  a  nominative  name  is  a  redundancy  which  should 
be  avoided.  You  will  understand  my  meaning  and  see  the 
propriety  of  the  change  proposed,  as  the  mind  of  the  learner 
should  not  be  burthened  with  needless  or  irrelevant  phrases. 

But  our  main  objection  lies  against  the  "  possessive  case." 
We  regard  it  as  a  false  and  unnecessary  distinction.  What 
is  the  possessive  case  ?  Murray  defines  it  as  "expressing 
the  relation  of  property  or  possession  ;  as,  my-  father's 
house."  His  rule  of  syntax  is,  "  one  substantive  governs 
another,  signifying  a  different  thing,  in  the  possessive  or 
genitive  case  ;  as,  my  father's  house."  I  desire  you  to  un- 
derstand the  definition  and  use  as  here  given.  Read  it  over 
again,  and  be  careful  that  you  know  the  meaning  of  prop, 
erty,  possession,  and  government.  Now  let  a  scholar  parse 
correctly  the  example  given.  "  Father^s^^  is  a  common 
noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and 
governed  by  house  :"  Rule,  "  One  noun  governs  another," 
F 


■y 

62  ON  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

(fee.  Then  my  father  does  not  govern  his  own  house,  but 
his  house  him  !  What  must  be  the  conduct  and  condition  of 
the  family,  if  they  have  usurped  the  government  of  their 
head  ?  "  John  Jones,  hatter,  keeps  constantly  for  sale  all 
kinds  of  boy^s  hats.  Parse  boy's.  It  is  a  noun,  possessive 
case,  governed  by  hats."  What  is  the  possessive  case? 
It  "  signifies  the  relation  of  property  or  possession.^^  Do  the 
hats  belong  to  the  boys  ?  Oh  no.  Are  they  the  property 
or  in  the  possession  of  the  boys  ?  Certainly  not.  Then 
what  relation  is  there  of  property  or  possession  ?  None  at 
all.  They  belong  to  John  Jones,  were  made  by  him,  are 
his  property,  and  by  iiim  are  advertised  for  sale.  He  has 
used  the  word  boy'^s  to  distinguish  their  size,  quality,  and 
fitness  for  boy's  use. 

"The  master's  slave."  Master's  is  in  the  possessive 
case,  and  governed  by  slave  !  If  grammars  are  true  there 
can  be  no  need  of  abolition  societies,  unless  it  is  to  look 
after  the  master  and  see  that  he  is  not  abused.  The  rider's 
horse  ;  the  captain's  ship ;  the  general's  army  ;  the  gov- 
ernor's cat ;  the  king's  subject.  How  false  it  would  be  to 
teach  scholars  the  idea  of  property  and  government  in  such 
cases.  The  teacher^ s  scholars  should  never  learn  that  by 
virtue  of  their  grammars,  or  the  apostrophe  and  letter 
they  have  a  right  to  govern  their  teachers  ;  nor  the  moth- 
er's son,  to  govern  his  mother.  Our  merchants  would  dis- 
like exceedingly  to  have  the  ladies  understand  them  to 
signify  by  their  advertisements  that  the  "  ladies'  merino 
shawls,  the  ladies's  bonnets  and  lace  wrought  veils,  the  la- 
dies' gloves  and  elegant  Thibet,  silk  and  challa  dresses, 
were  the  property  of  the  ladies  ;  for  in  that  case  they  might 
claim  or  possess  themselves  of  their  property,  and  no  longer 
trouble  the  merchant  with  the  care  of  it. 


POSSESSIVE  CASE  CONSIDERED. 


63 


"  Peter's  wife's  mother  lay  sick  of  a  fever."  "  His  phy- 
sician said  that  his  disease  would  require  his  utmost  skill  to 
defeat  its  progress  in  his  limbs."  Phrases  like  these  are 
constantly  occurring,  which  cannot  be  explained  intelligibly 
by  the  existing  grammars.  In  fact,  the  words  said  to  be 
nouns  in  the  possessive  case,  have  changed  their  character, 
by  use,  from  nouns  to  adjectives,  or  definitive  words,  and 
should  thus  be  classed.  Russia  iron,  Holland  gin,  China 
ware,  American  people,  the  Washington  tavern,  Lafayette 
house,  Astor  house,  Hudson  river,  (formerly  Hudson's,) 
Baffin's  bay.  Van  Dieman's  land,  John  street.  Harper's  fer- 
ry, Hill's  bridge,  a  paper  book,  a  bound  book,  a  red  book, 
John's  book — one  which  John  is  known  to  use,  it  may  be 
a  borrowed  one,  but  generally  known  as  some  way  con- 
nected  with  him, — Rev.  Mr.  Smith's  church,  St.  John's 
church,  Grace  church,  Murray's  grammar  ;  not  the  property 
nor  ia  the  possession  of  Lindley  Murray,  neither  does  it 
govern  him ;  for  he  has  gone  to  speak  a  purer  language 
than  he  taught  on  earth.  It  is  mine.  I  bought  it,  have 
possessed  it  these  ten  years  ;  but,  thank  fortune,  am  little 
governed  by  it.  But  more  on  this  point  when  we  come  to 
the  proper  place.  What  I  have  said,  will  serve  as  a  hint, 
which  will  enable  you  to  see  the  impropriety  of  adopting  the 
"possessive  case." 

It  may  be  said  that  more  cases  are  employed  in  other 
languages.  That  is  a  poor  reason  why  we  should  break 
the  barriers  of  natural  language.  Beside,  I  know  not  how 
we  should  decide  by  that  rule,  for  none  of  them  have  a  case 
that  will  compare  with  the  English  possessive.  The  geni- 
tive of  the  French,  Latin,  or  Greek,  will  apply  in  only  a 
few  respects.    The  former  has  three,  the  latter  five,  and  the 


64 


ON  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 


Latin  six  cases,  neither  of  which  correspond  with  the  pos- 
sessive, as  explained  by  Murray  and  his  sateUites.  We 
should  be  slow  to  adopt  into  our  language  an  idionn  which 
does  not  belong  to  it,  and  compel  learners  to  make  distinc- 
tions where  none  exist.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  tell  child- 
ren  that  the  apostrophe  and  letter  s  marks  the  possessive 
case  ;  but  when  they  ask  the  difference  in  the  meaning  be- 
tween the  use  of  the  noun  and  those  which  all  admit  are  ad- 
jectives, it  will  be  no  indifferent  task  to  satisfy  them.  What 
is  the  difference  in  the  construction  of  language  or  the  sense 
conveyed,  between  Hudson'^r  river,  and  Hudson  river  ?  Da- 
vis's straits,  or  Bass  straits  ?  St.  John's  church,  or  Episco- 
pal church  ?  the  sun's  beams,  or  sun  shine  ?  In  all  cases 
these  words  are  used  to  define  the  succeeding  noun.  They 
regard  "  property  or  possession,"  only  when  attending  cir- 
cumstances, altogether  foreign  from  any  quality  in  the  form 
or  meaning  of  the  word  itself,  are  so  combined  as  to  give  it 
that  import.  And  in  such  cases,  we  retain  these  words  as 
adjectives,  long  after  the  property  has  passed  from  the  hands 
of  the  persons  who  gave  it  a  name.  Field's  point,  Fuller^s 
rocks,  Fisher^s  island,  FultorCs  invention,  will  long  be  re- 
tained after  those  whose  names  were  given  to  distinguish 
these  things,  have  slept  with  their  fathers  and  been  forgot- 
ten. Blannerhassett's  Island,  long  since  ceased  to  be  his 
property  or  tranquil  possession,  by  confiscation  ;  but  it  will 
retain  its  specific  name,  till  the  inundations  of  the  Ohio's 
waters  shall  have  washed  it  away  and  left  not  a  wreck  be- 
hind. 

The  distinctions  I  have  made  in  the  positions  of  nouns, 
will  be  clearly  understood  when  we  come  to  the  verbs.  A 
few  remarks  upon  pronouns  will  close  the  present  lecture. 


PRONOUNS. 


65 


PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns  are  such  as  the  word  indicates.  Pro  is  the 
latin  word  ybr  ;  pro-nomen,  for  nouns.  They  are  words, 
originally  nouns,  used  specifically /br  other  nouns,  to  avoid 
the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  words  ;  as,  Washing- 
ton was  the  father  of  his  country  ;  he  was  a  valiant  officer. 
We  ought  to  respect  Jiim.  The  word  we,  stands  for  the 
speaker  and  all  present,  and  saves  the  trouble  of  naniing 
them ;  he  and  him,  stand  for  Washington,  to  avoid  the  mo- 
notony which  would  be  produced  by  a  recurrence  of  his 
name. 

Pronouns  are  all  of  one  kind,  and  few  in  number.  I  will 
give  you  a  list  of  them  in  their  respective  positions. 

Agents.  Objects. 
'  1st  person,  I,  me. 


Singular 


2d  "  thou,  thee, 
"  mas.  ^  he,  him, 
"    fem.  >  she,  her, 


It,  It. 

^  1st  person,  we,  us. 
Plural      <  2d     "      ye,  or  you,  you, 
(  3d      "      they,  them, 
who,  whom. 
The  two  last  may  be  used  in  either  person,  number,  or 
gender. 

The  frequent  use  of  these  words  render  them  very  im- 
portant,  in  the  elegant  and  rapid  use  of  language.  They 
are  so  short,  and  their  sound  so  soft  and  easy,  that  the  fre- 
quency of  their  recurrence  does  not  mar  the  beauty  of  a  sen- 
tence, but  saves  us  from  the  redundancy  of  other  words. 
They  are  substituted  only  when  there  is  little  danger  of 
mistaking  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand.  They  are,  how- 
ever, sometimes  used  in  a  very  broad  sense ;  as,  "  ihey  say 


66 


ON  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 


it  is  so ;"  meaning  no  particular  persons,  but  the  general 
sentiment.  It  frequently  takes  the  lead  of  a  sentence,  and 
the  thing  represented  by  it  comes  after  ;  as,  "  It  is  currently 
reported,  that  things  were  thus  and  so."  Here  it  represents 
the  single  idea  which  is  afterward  stated  at  length.  "  It  is 
so."  "/if  may  be  that  the  nations  will  be  destroyed  by 
wars,  earthquakes,  and  famines."  But  more  of  this  when 
we  come  to  speak  of  the  composition  of  sentences. 

The  words  now  classed  as  pronouns  were  originally 
names  of  things,  but  in  this  character  they  have  long  been 
obsolete.  They  are  now  used  only  in  their  secondary 
character  as  the  representatives  of  other  words.  The  word 
he,  for  instance,  signified  originally  to  breathe.  It  was  ap- 
plied to  the  living  beings  who  inhaled  air.  It  occurs  with 
little  change  in  the  various  languages  of  Europe,  ancient 
and  modern,  till  at  length  it  is  applied  to  the  male  agent 
which  lives  and  acts.  The  word  her  means  light,  but  is 
specifically  applied  to  females  which  are  the  objects  of  ac- 
tion. 

Was  it  in  accordance  with  the  design  of  these  lectures,  it 
would  give  me  pleasure  to  go  into  a  minute  examination  of 
the  origin,  changes  and  meaning  of  these  words  till  they 
came  to  be  applied  as  specific  words  of  exceeding  limited 
character.  Most  of  them  might  be  traced  thro  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe ;  the  Arabic,  Persic,  Arminian,  Chal- 
dean,  Hebrew,  and,  for  ought  I  know,  all  the  languages  of 
Asia.  But  as  they  are  now  admitted  a  peculiar  position  in 
the  expression  of  thought  from  which  they  never  vary  ;  and 
as  we  are  contending  about  philosophic  principles  rather 
than  verbal  criticisms,  I  shall  forbear  a  further  considera- 
tion of  these  w  ')rds. 


PRONOUNS. 


67 


In  the  proper  place  1  shall  consider  those  words  formerly 
called  "  Adjective  Pronouns,"  "  Pronoun  Adjectives,"  or 

Pronominal  Adjectives,"  to  suit  the  varying  whims  of  those 
grammar  makers,  who  desired  to  show  off  a  speck  of  im- 
provement in  their  "  simplifying"  works  without  ever  hav- 
ing a  new  idea  to  express.  It  is  a  query  in  some  minds 
whether  the  seventy-two  "  simplifiers"  and  "  improvers" 
of  Murray's  grammar  ever  had  any  distinct  notions  in  their 
heads  which  they  did  not  obtain  from  the  very  man,  who, 
it  would  seem  by  their  conduct,  was  unable  to  explain  his 
own  meaning. 


LECTURE  VI. 

ON  ADJECTIVES. 

Definition  of  adjectives. — General  character. — Derivation. — How 
understood. — Defining  and  describing. — Meaning  changes  to  suit 
the  noun. — Too  numerous. — Derived  from  nouns. — Nouns  and 
verbs  made  from  adjectives. — Foreign  adjectives. — A  general 
list. — Difficult  to  be  understood. — An  example. — Often  superflu- 
ous.— Derived  from  verbs. — Participles. — Some  prepositions. — 
Meaning  unknown. — With. — In. — Out. — Of. 

The  most  important  sub-division  of  words  is  the  class 
called  Adjectives,  which  we  propose  to  notice  this  evening. 
Adjective  signifies  added  or  joined  to.  We  employ  the  term 
in  grammar  to  designate  that  class  of  words  which  are 
added,  to  nouns  to  define  or  describe  thein.  In  doing  this,  we 
strictly  adhere  to  the  principles  we  have  already  advanced, 
and  do  not  deviate  from  the  laws  of  nature,  as  developed  in 
the  regulation  of  speech. 

In  speaking  of  things,  we  had  occasion  to  observe  that 
the  mind  not  only  conceived  ideas  of  things,  but  of  their 
properties  ;  as,  the  hardness  of  flint ;  the  heat  of  fire  ;  and 
that  we  spoke  of  one  thing  in  reference  to  another.  We 
come  now  to  consider  this  subject  more  at  large. 

In  the  use  of  language  the  mind  first  rests  on  the  thing 
which  is  present  before  it,  or  the  word  which  represents  the 
idea  of  that  thing.  Next  it  observes  the  changes  and  atti- 
tudes of  these  things.  Thirdly,  it  conceives  ideas  of  their 
qualities  and  relations  to  other  things.    The  first  use  of 


GENERAL  CHARACTER.  DERIVATION. 


69 


these  words  is  to  name  things.  This  we  call  nouns.  The 
second  is  to  express  their  actions.  This  we  call  verbs. 
The  last  is  to  define  or  describe  things.  This  we  call  nd. 
jectives.  There  is  a  great  similarity  between  the  words 
used  to  nanne  things  and  to  express  their  actions  ;  as,  build- 
ers build  buildings  ;  singers  sing  songs  ;  writers  write  writ- 
ings ;  painters  paint  paintings.  In  the  popular  use  of  lan- 
guage we  vary  these  words  to  avoid  the  monotony  and  give 
pleasantness  and  variety.  We  say  builders  erect  houses, 
barns,  and  other  buildings  ;  singers  perform  pieces  of  mu- 
sic ;  musicians  play  tunes  ;  the  choir  sing  psalm  tunes  ; 
artists  paint  pictures. 

From  these  two  classes  a  third  is  derived  which  partakes 
somewhat  of  the  nature  of  both,  and  yet  from  its  secondary 
use,  it  has  obtained  a  distinctive  character,  and  as  such  is 
allowed  a  separate  position  among  the  classes  of  words. 

It  might  perhaps  appear  more  in  order  to  pass  the  con- 
sideration of  adjectives  till  we  have  noticed  the  character  and 
use  of  verbs,  from  which  an  important  portion  of  them  is 
derived.  But  as  they  are  used  in  connexion  with  nouns,  and 
as  the  character  they  borrow  from  the  verb  will  be  readily 
understood,  I  have  preferred  to  retain  the  old  arrangement, 
and  cosinder  them  in  this  place. 

Adjectives  are  icords  added  to  nouns  to  define  or  de- 
scribe them.  They  are  derived  either,  1st,  from  nouns  ;  as, 
window  glass,  glass  window,  a  stone  house,  building  stone, 
maple  sugar,  sugar  cane  ;  or,  2d,  from  verbs  ;  as,  a  written 
paper,  a  printed  book,  a  painted  house,  a  writing  desk.  In 
the  first  case  we  employ  one  noun,  or  the  name  of  one  thing, 
to  define  another,  thus  giving  it  a  secondary  use.  A  glass 
window  is  one  made  of  glass,  and  not  of  any  thing  else.  It 
is  neither  a  board  window,  nor  a  paper  window.  Maph 


70  ON  ADJECTIVES. 

sugar  is  not  cane  sugar,  nor  hei  t  sugar,  nor  molasses  sugar  ; 
but  it  may  be  hrown  sugar,  if  it  has  been  brownecZ,  or  white 
if  it  has  been  whxied  or  \v\\\iened.  In  this  case,  you  at  once 
perceive  the  correctness  of  our  second  proposition,  in  the 
derivation  of  adjectives  from  verbs,  by  which  we  describe 
a  thing  in  reference  to  its  condition,  in  some  way  affected 
by  the  operation  of  a  prior  action.  A  printed  book  is  one 
on  which  the  action  of  printing  has  been  performed.  A 
written  book  differs  from  the  former,  in  as  much  as  its  ap- 
pearance  was  produced  by  writing  and  not  by  printing. 

In  the  definition  or  description  of  things,  whatever  is  best 
understood  is  employed  as  a  definitive  or  descriptive  term, 
and  is  attached  to  the  object  to  make  known  its  properties 
and  relations.  Speaking  of  nations,  if  we  desire  to  distin- 
guish some  from  others,  we  choose  the  words  supposed  to 
be  best  known,  and  talk  of  European,  African,  American, 
or  Indian  nations ;  northern,  southern,  eastern,  or  western 
nations.  These  last  words  are  used  in  reference  to  their 
relative  position,  and  may  be  variously  understood  ;  for  we 
speak  of  the  northern,  eastern,  western,  and  southern  na- 
tions of  Europe,  of  Africa,  and  the  world. 

Again,  we  read  of  civilizecZ,  half-civilized,  and  barbarous 
nations  ;  learned,  unlearned,  ignorant,  and  enlightened ;  rich, 
powerful,  enterprising,  respected,  ancient  or  modern,  christ- 
ian, mahomedan  or  pagan.  In  these,  and  a  thousand  simi- 
lar cases,  we  decide  the  meaning,  not  alone  from  the  word 
employed  as  an  adjective,  but  from  the  subject  of  remark  ; 
for,  were  we  to  attach  the  same  meaning  to  the  same  word, 
wherever  used,  we  could  not  receive  correct  or  definite  im- 
pressions  from  the  language  of  others — our  inferences  would 
be  the  most  monstrous.  A  great  mountain  and  o, great  pin, 
a  great  continent  and  a  great  farm,  a  great  ocean  and  a 


HOW  XTNDERSTOOD.  DEFININING  AND  DESCRIBING.  71 

great  pond,  a  great  grammar  and  a  great  scholar,  refer  to 
things  of  very  different  dimensions  and  character  ;  or,  as 
Mr.  Murray  would  say,  "  qualities."  A  mountain  is  great 
by  comparison  with  other  mountains ;  and  a  pin,  compared 
with  other  pins,  may  be  very  large — exceeding  great — and 
yet  fall  very  far  short  of  the  size  of  a  very  small  mountain. 
A  small  man  may  be  a  g7'eat  scholar,  and  a  rich  neighbor 
a  poor  friend.  A  sweet  flower  is  often  very  bitter  to  the 
taste.  A  good  horse  would  make  a  bad  dinner,  but  false 
grammar  can  never  make  true  philologists. 

All  words  are  to  be  understood  according  to  their  use. 
Their  meaning  can  be  determined  in  no  other  way.  Many 
words  change  their  forms  to  express  their  relations,  but 
fewer  in  our  language  than  in  most  others,  ancient  or  mod- 
ern.  Other  words  remain  the  same,  or  nearly  so,  in  every 
position  ;  noun,  adjective,  or  verb,  agent  or  object,  past  or 
present.  To  determine  whether  a  word  is  an  adjective, 
first  ascertain  whether  it  names  a  thing,  defines  or  describes 
it,  or  expresses  its  action,  and  you  will  never  be  at  a  loss  to 
know  to  what  class  it  belongs. 

The  business  of  adjectives  is  twofold,  and  they  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  appellations  of  defining  or  describing 
adjectives.  This  distinction  is  in  many  cases  unimportant ; 
in  others  it  is  quite  essential.  The  same  word  in  one  case 
may  define,  in  others  describe  the  object,  and  occasionally 
do  both,  for  we  often  specify  things  by  their  descriptions. 
The  learner  has  only  to  ascertain  the  meaning  and  use  of 
the  adjective  to  decide  whether  it  defines  or  describes  the 
subject  of  remark.  If  it  is  employed  to  distinguish  one 
thing  from  the  general  mass,  or  one  class  from  other  classes, 
it  has  the  former  character  ;  but  after  such  thing  is  pointed 
out,  if  it  is  used  to  give  a  description  of  its  character  or 


72 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


properties,  its  character  is  different,  and  should  be  so  under- 
stood and  explained. 

Defining  adjectives  are  used  to  pomi  ou/,  specify  or  dis- 
tinguish certain  things  from  others  of  their  kind,  or  one  sort 
from  other  sorts,  and  answer  to  the  questions  which,  what, 
how  many,  or  Iww  much. 

Describing  adjectives  express  the  character  and  qualities 
of  things,  and  give  a  more  full  and  distinct  knowledge  than 
was  before  possessed. 

In  a  case  before  mentioned,  we  spoke  of  the  "  Indian  na- 
tions." The  word  Indian  was  chosen  to  specify  or  define 
what  nations  were  alluded  to.  But  all  may  not  decide  alike 
in  this  case.  Some  may  think  we  meant  the  aborigines  of 
America  ;  others,  that  the  southern  nations  of  Asia  were 
referred  to.  This  difficulty  originates  in  a  misapprehension 
of  the  definitive  word  chosen.  India  was  early  known  as 
the  name  of  the  south  part  of  Asia,  and  the  people  there, 
were  called  Indians.  When  Columbus  discovered  the  new 
world,  supposing  he  had  reached  the  country  of  India,  which 
had  long  been  sought  by  a  voyage  round  the  coast  of  Africa, 
he  named  it  India,  and  the  people  Indians.  But  when  the 
mistake  was  discovered,  and  the  truth  fully  known,  instead 
of  effecting  a  change  in  the  name  already  very  generally 
understood,  and  in  common  use,  another  word  was  chosen 
to  distinguish  between  countries  so  opposite,  and  West  India 
became  the  word  to  distinguish  the  newly  discovered  islands  ; 
and  as  India  was  little  better  known  in  Europe  at  that 
time,  instead  of  retaining  their  old  name  unaltered,  another 
word  was  prefixed,  and  they  called  it  East  India.  When, 
therefore,  we  desire  to  be  definite,  we  retain  these  words, 
and  say.  East  Indians  and  West  Indians.  Without  this  dis. 
tinction,  we  should  understand  the  native  people  of  our  own 


TOO  NUMEROUS.  DERIVED  FROM  NOUNS. 


73 


country  ;  but  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  they  would  think 
we  alluded  to  those  in  Asia.  So  with  all  other  adjectives 
which  arc  not  understood.  Indian,  as  an  adjective,  may 
also  be  employed  to  describe  the  character  and  condition  of 
the  aborigines.  We  talk  of  an  Indian  temper,  Indian  looks, 
indian  blankets,  furs,  &;c. 

In  writing  and  conversation  we  should  employ  words  to 
explain,  to  define  and  describe,  which  are  better  understood 
than  those  things  of  which  we  speak.  The  pedantry  of 
some  modern  writers  in  this  respect  is  ridiculous.  Not  sat- 
isfied to  use  plain  terms  which  every  body  can  understand, 
they  hunt  the  dictionaries  from  alpha  to  omega,  and  not 
unfrequently  overleap  the  king's  english,"  and  ransack 
other  languages  to  find  an  unheard  of  word,  or  a  list  of  ad- 
jectives never  before  arranged  together,  in  so  nice  a  man- 
ner, so  that  their  ideas  are  lost  to  the  common  reader,  if  not 
to  themselves.  This  fault  may  be  alleged  against  too  many 
of  our  public  speakers,  as  well  as  the  affected  gentry  of  the 
land.  They  are  hke  Shakspeare's  Gratiano,  "  who  speaks 
an  infinite  deal  of  nothing,  more  than  any  man  in  all  Venice  ; 
his  reasons  are  as  two  grains  of  wheat  hid  in  two  bushels 
of  chaff:  you  shall  seek  all  day  ere  you  find  them  ;  and, 
when  you  have  found  them,  they  are  not  worth  the  search." 
Such  sentences  remind  us  of  the  painting  of  the  young  artist 
who  drew  the  form  of  an  animal,  but  apprehensive  that 
some  might  mistake  it,  wrote  under  it,  "  This  is  a  horse.''^ 

In  forming  our  notions  of  what  is  signified  by  an  adjec- 
tive, the  mind  should  pause  to  determine  the  meaning  of 
such  word  when  used  as  a  distinct  name  for  some  object,  in 
order  to  determine  the  import  of  it  in  this  new  capacity. 
A  tallow  candle  is  one  made  of  a  substance  called  tallow, 
and  is  employed  to  distinguish  it  from  wax  or  spermaceti 

G 


74 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


candles.  The  adjective  in  this  case,  names  the  article  of 
which  the  candle  is  made,  and  is  thus  a  noun,  but,  as  we 
are  not  speaking  of  tallow,  but  of  candles,  we  place  it  in  a 
new  relation,  and  give  it  a  new  grammatical  character. 
But  you  will  perceive  the  correctness  of  a  former  assertion, 
that  all  words  may  be  reduced  to  two  classes,  and  that  ad- 
jectives are  derived  from  nouns  or  verbs. 

But  you  may  inquire  if  there  are  not  some  adjectives  in 
use  which  have  no  corresponding  verb  or  noun  from  which 
they  are  derived.  There  arc  many  words  in  our  language 
which  in  certain  uses  have  become  obsolete,  but  are  re- 
tained in  others.  We  now  use  some  words  as  verbs  which 
originally  were  known  only  as  nouns,  and  others  as  nouns 
which  are  unknown  as  verbs.  We  also  put  a  new  con- 
struction upon  words  and  make  nouns,  verbs  and  adjectives 
promiscuously  and  with  little  regard  to  rule  or  propriety. 
Words  at  one  time  unknown  become  familiar  by  use,  and 
others  are  laid  aside  for  those  more  new  or  fashionable. 
These  facts  are  so  obvious  that  I  shall  be  excused  from  ex- 
tending my  remarks  to  any  great  length.  But  I  will  give 
an  example  which  will  serve  as  a  clew  to  the  whole.  Take 
the  word  happy,  long  known  only  as  an  adjective.  Instead 
of  following  this  word  hack  to  its  primitive  use  and  deriving 
it  directly  from  its  noun,  or  as  a  past  participle,  such  as  it 
is  in  truth,  we  have  gone  forward  and  made  from  it  the 
noun  happiness,  and,  in  more  modern  days,  are  usiiig  the 
verb  happify,  a  word,  by  the  way,  in  common  use,  but 
which  has  not  yet  been  honored  with  a  place  in  our  dic- 
tionaries ;  altiio  Mr.  Webster  has  given  us,  as  he  says,  the 
unauthorised  (un-author-ised)  word  "  happifying.^^  Per- 
haps he  had  never  heard  or  read  some  of  our  greatest  sa^ 


NOUNS  AND  VERBS  MADE  FROM  ADJECTIVES.  75 


vans,  who,  if  not  the  authors,  employ  the  word  happify  very 
frequently  in  the  pulpit  and  halls  of  legislation,  and  at  the 
bar,  as  well  as  in  common  parlance. 

Happy  is  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  to  hap,  or,  as  af- 
terwards used,  with  a  nice  shade  of  change  in  the  meaning, 
to  happ&n.  It  means  happied,  or  made  happy  by  those  fa- 
vorable  circumstances  which  have  happened  to  us.  Who- 
ever will  read  our  old  writers  no  further  back  than  Shaks- 
peare,  will  at  once  see  the  use  and  changes  of  this  word. 
They  will  find  it  in  all  its  forms,  simple  and  compound,  as 
a  verb,  noun,  and  adjective.  "  It  may  hap  that  he  will 
come."  It  happened  as  I  was  going  that  I  found  my  lost 
child,  and  was  thereby  made  quite  happy.  The  man  de- 
sired to  happify  himself  and  family  without  much  labor,  so 
he  engaged  in  speculation  ;  and  happify  he  was  not  so  hap- 
less in  his  pursuit  of  happiness  as  often  happens  to  such 
h(i^j-\iCiZ3.rd  fellows,  for  he  soon  became  very  happy  with  ?i 
moderate  fortune. 

But  to  the  question.  There  are  many  adjectives  in  our 
language  which  are  borrowed  from  foreign  words.  Instead 
of  adjectiving  our  own  nouns  we  go  to  our  neighbors  and 
adjective  and  anglicise  [english-ise]  their  words,  and  adopt 
the  pampered  urchins  into  our  own  family  and  call  them 
our  favorites.  It  is  no  wonder  that  they  often  appear  auk- 
ward  and  unfamiliar,  and  that  our  children  are  slow  in 
forming  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  them.  You  are 
here  favored  with  a  short  list  of  these  words  which  will 
serve  as  examples,  and  enable  you  to  comprehend  my 
meaning  and  apply  it  in  future  use.  Some  of  them  are  reg- 
idarly  used  as  adjectives,  with  or  without  change  ;  others 
are  not. 


76 

ON  ADJECTIVES. 

ENGLISH  NOUNS. 

FOREIGN  ADJECTIVES. 

Alone 

Sole,  solitary 

Alms 

Eleemosynary 

Age 

Primeval 

Belief 

Credulous 

Blame 

Culpable 

Breast 

Pectoral 

Being 

Essential 

Bosom 

Graminal,  sinuous 

Boy,  boyish 

Puerile 

Blood,  bloody 

Sanguinary,  sanguine 

Burden 

Onerous 

Beginning 

Initial 

Boundary 

Conterminous 

^Brother 

Fraternal 

Bowels 

Visceral 

Body 

Corporeal 

Birth 

Natal,  native> 

Calf 

Vituline 

Carcass 

Cadaverous 

Cat 

Feline 

Cow 

Vaccine 

Country 

Rural,  rustic 

Church 

Ecclesiastical 

Death 

Mortal 

Dog 

Canine 

Day 

Diurnal,  meridian,  ephemeral 

Disease 

Morbid 

East 

Oriental 

Egg 

Oval 

Ear 

Auricular 

Eye 

Ocular 

DERIVED  FROM  FOREIGN  NOUNS. 


77 


ENGLISH  NOUNS. 

FOREIGN  ADJECTIVES. 

Flesh 

Carnal,  carnivorous 

Father 

Paternal 

r  lela 

Agrarian 

rJOCK 

Gregarious 

r  oe 

riosiiie 

rear 

Timorous,  timid 

Finger 

JJigitai 

Tj^  1      4-4.  ^ 

r  lattery 

Adulatory 

r  ire 

Igneous 

r  aitn 

Fiducial 

r  cot 

1  eaai 

ijrroin 

Inguinal 

Guardian 

1  uteiar 

Cjrlass 

A/ 1  f  i*i:i/*kn  CP 

V  iireous 

Grape 

U veous 

UOUJI  OUS 

Lrain 

Lucrative 

rlelp 

Auxiliary 

Heart 

Cordial,  cardiac 

nire 

Stipendiary 

llurt 

Noxious 

Hatred 

Odious 

neaiTii 

Salutary,  salubrious 

iieaa 

Capital,  chief 

Ice 

(jrlacial 

T  ol  o  Ki  rt 

isidnci 

Insular 

King 

Regal,  royal 

Kitchen 

Culinary 

Life 

Vital,  vivid,  vivarious 

Lungs 

Pulmonary 

Lip 

Labial 

G* 


78 

ON  ADJECTIVES. 

ENGLISH  NOUNS-i 

FOREIGN  ADJECTIVES' 

Crural  J  isosceles 

Liffht 

Lucid,  luminous 

Love 

Amorous 

Lust 

Tjihidinoiis 

Law 

Legal,  loyal 

Matfrna] 

Money 

Pecuniary 

Mixture 

Prorni*?piinii<i  misffllanfoii*? 

Moon 

Lunar,  sublunary 

Mouth 

Oral 

IVf  arrow 

iV'TpdiilaTV 

Mind 

Mental 

Man 

Virilp.  malp  hiunan  lYinsoiilin*^ 

Milk 

T jaotpaT 

Meal 

T^prinfippoiis 

Nose 

Nasal 

Navel 

Umbilical 

Niffht 

Nocturnal,  ecjuinoctial 

Noise 

Obstreperous 

One 

First 

Parish 

Parochial 

People 

Popular,  populous,  public. 

epidemical,  endemical 

Point 

Punctual 

Pride 

Superb,  haughty 

Plenty 

Copious 

Pitch 

Ritiiminoiis 

Priest 

Snpprdntal 

Rival 

Emulous 

Root 

Radical 

Ring 

Annular 

DERIVED  FROM  FOREIGN  NOUNS, 


jSrivil^ion.  ^mJ\jir*Ti* 

FOREIGN  ADJECTIVES. 

Rational 

Revenge 

\/ 1  nri  1  r*t  1  \7  A 
V  IIIU ll^ll  V c 

Rule 

Regular 

LoquaciouSj  garrulousj  elo- 

cjucnt 

onieil 

Olfactory 

conspicuous 

Side 

Tjateral.  collateral 

Sir  in 

VylllalJeOUb 

opiine 

SnliviHl 

ouiiicrcii 

Sea 

■i'-tcll  lllC^y  llJdl iLiIll\> 

Share 

Snn 
OUll 

ooiar 

Star 

/\bndi,  oiuerai,  sieuar 

SiinHn  V 

1  IniYi  1  n  i/^ji  1 
XJ(Ji  1  JlUll^dl 

Vernal 

Siirnmpr 

X-iOtl  V  CXL 

Shin 

Ncival,  iiauticdl 

Shell 

Sloor» 

oieep 

Soporiferous 

Strength 

XVOOUSt 

Swf»fjt 

Step 

iirrjin  1  la  1 

Sole 

Venal 

Two 

Second 

Treaty 

Federal 

Trifle 

Nugatory 

80 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


ENGLISH  N0UN6. 

FOREIGN  ADJECTIVES. 

Fiscal 

X  11 lie; 

xeinpordij  cnroniCai 

Tnwn 

X  own 

Oppidan 

X  iianKS 

Gratuitous 

X  iieit 

Furtive 

1  nreat 

Minatory 

X  reacnery 

Insidious 

1  ning 

Keal 

1  nioat 

Jugular,  gutteral 

X  asie 

Insipid 

1  liougnt 

Pensive 

1  nign 

Femoral 

1  ootn 

xjeniai 

X  cdr 

X-icit/iii  y  iiidi 

Vessel 

Vascular 

Worla 

Mundane 

vvood 

Sylvan,  savage 

\V  ay 

Devious,  obvious,  impervious, 

trivial 

Worm 

Vermicular 

W  hale 

Cutaceous 

w  lie 

Uxorious 

Word 

Verbal,  verbose 

Weak 

Hebdomadal 

"XXT  11 

Wall 

Mural 

Will 

Voluntary,  spontaneous 

Winter 

Brumal 

Wound 

Vulnerary 

West 

Occidental 

War 

Martial 

HOW  FORMED.  MEANING  DIFFICULT. 


81 


ENGLISH  NOUNS.  FOREIGN  ADJECTIVES. 

Women  Feminine,  female,  effeminate 

Year  Annual,  anniversary,  peren« 

nial,  triennial 

Such  are  some  of  the  adjectives  introduced  into  our  lan- 
guage from  other  nations.  The  list  will  enable  you  to  dis- 
cover  that  when  we  have  no  adjective  of  our  own  to  cor- 
respond with  the  noun,  we  borrov/  from  our  neighbors  an 
adjective  derived  from  one  of  their  nouns,  to  which  we  give 
an  english  termination.    For  example  : 


English  Noun. 

Latin  Noun. 

Adjective. 

Boy 

Puer 

Puerile 

Grief 

Dolor 

Dolorous 

Thought 

Pensa 

Pensive 

Wife 

Uxor 

Uxorious 

Word 

Verbum 

Verbal,  verbose 

Year 

Annum 

Annual 

Body 

Corpus 

Corporeal 

Head 

Caput 

Capital 

Church 

Ekklesia  (Greek) 

Ecclesiastical 

King 

Roi  (French) 

Royal 

Law 

Loi 

Loyal 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  understand  the  adjectives  of 
many  nouns  with  which  we  are  familiar,  from  the  fact  above 
stated,  that  they  are  derived  from  other  languages,  and  not 
our  own.  The  most  thoro  scholars  have  found  this  task  no 
easy  affair.  Most  grammarians  have  let  it  pass  unobserved  ; 
but  every  person  has  seen  the  necessity  of  some  explanation 
upon  this  point,  to  afford  a  means  of  ascertaining  the  etymo- 
logical derivation  and  meaning  of  these  words.  I  would 
here  enter  farther  into  this  subject,  but  I  am  reminded  that 
I  am  surpassing  the  limits  set  me  for  this  course  of  lectures. 


82 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


The  attention  I  have  bestowed  on  this  part  of  the  present 
subject,  will  not  be  construed  into  a  mere  verbal  criticism. 
It  has  been  adopted  to  show  you  how,  in  the  definition  or 
description  of  things,  the  mind  clings  to  one  thing  to  gain 
some  information  concerning  another.  When  we  find  a 
thing  unlike  any  thing  else  we  have  ever  known,  in  form, 
in  size,  in  color,  in  every  thing  ;  we  should  find  it  a  difficult 
task,  if  not  an  impossibility,  to  describe  it  to  another  in  a 
way  to  give  any  correct  idea  of  it.  Flaving  never  seen  its 
like  before,  we  can  say  little  of  its  character.  We  may 
give  it  a  name,  but  that  would  not  b:3  understood.  We 
could  say  it  was  as  large  as — no,  it  had  no  size  ;  that  it 
was  like — but  no,  it  had  no  likeness  ;  that  it  resembled — 
no,  it  had  no  resemblance.  How  could  we  describe  it  ? 
What  could  we  say  of  it  ?    Nothing  at  all. 

What  idea  could  the  Pacha  of  Egypt  form  of  ice,  having 
never  seen  any  till  the  french  chemists  succeeded  in  freez- 
ing water  in  his  presence  ?  They  told  him  of  ice  ;  that  it 
was  cold  ;  that  it  would  freeze  :  that  whole  streams  were 
often  frozen  over,  so  that  men  and  teams  could  walk  over 
them.  He  believed  no  such  thing — it  was  a  "  christian  lie." 
This  idea  was  confirmed  on  the  first  trial  of  the  chemists, 
which  failed  of  success.  But  when,  on  the  second  attempt, 
they  succeeded,  he  was  all  in  raptures.  A  new  field  was 
open  before  him.  New  ideas  were  produced  in  his  mind. 
New  qualities  were  learned  ;  and  he  could  now  form  some 
idea  of  the  ice  bergs  of  the  north  ;  frozen  regions,  which 
he  had  never  seen  ;  of  icy  hearts,  and  storms    frozen  rain. 

We  often  hear  it  said,  such  a  man  is  very  stoical ;  an- 
other is  an  epicurean  ;  and  another  is  a  bacchanal,  or  hac- 
chanalian.  But  what  idea  should  vi^e  form  of  such  persons, 
if  we  had  never  read  of  the  Stoics  and  their  philosophy  :  of 


OFTEN  SUPERFLUOUS. 


83 


Epicurus  and  his  notions  of  happiness  and  duty  ;  or  of  Bac- 
chus, the  god  of  wine  and  revelry,  whose  annual  feasts,  or 
Dionysia,  were  celebrated  with  the  most  extravagant  licen- 
tiousness tliro  out  Greece  and  Rome,  till  put  down  by  tlie 
Senate  of  the  latter. 

You  can  not  fail  to  see  the  importance  of  the  knowledge 
on  which  we  here  insist.  The  meaning  you  attach  to  words 
is  exceedingly  diverse  ;  and  hence  you  are  not  always  able 
to  think  alike,  or  understand  each  other,  nor  derive  the  same 
sentiment  from  the  same  language.  The  contradictory  opin- 
ions which  exist  in  the  world  may  be  accounted  for,  in  a 
great  measure,  in  this  way.  Our  knowledge  of  many  things 
of  which  we  speak,  is  limited,  either  from  lack  of  means,  or 
disposition  to  employ  them.  People  always  differ  and  con- 
tend most  about  things  of  which  they  know  the  least.  Did 
we  all  attach  the  same  meaning  to  the  same  words,  our 
opinions  would  all  be  the  same,  as  true  as  the  forty-fiftli 
problem  of  Euclid.  How  important,  then,  that  children 
should  always  be  taught  tlie  same  meaning  of  words,  and 
learn  to  use  them  correctly.  Etymology,  viewed  in  this 
light,  is  a  most  important  branch  of  science. 

Whenever  a  word  is  sufficiently  understood,  no  adjective 
should  be  connected  with  it.  There  is  a  ridiculous  prac- 
tice among  many  people,  of  appending  to  every  noun  one  or 
more  adjectives,  which  have  no  other  effect  than  to  expose 
their  own  folly.  Some  writers  are  so  in  the  habit  of  an- 
nexing adjectives  to  all  nouns,  that  they  dare  not  use  one 
without.  You  will  not  unfrequently  see  adjectives  different 
in  form,  added  to  a  noun  of  very  similar  meaning  ;  as,  sad 
melancholy,  an  ominous  sign,  this  mundane  earth,  pensive 
thoughts.  J 


84 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


When  words  can  be  obtained,  which  not  only  name  the 
object,  but  also  describe  its  properties,  it  should  be  preferred 
to  a  noun  wuth  an  adjective  ;  as  pirate,  for  sea  rohher ;  sa- 
van,  for  a  learned  or  wise  man.* 

In  relation  to  that  class  of  adjectives  derived  from  verbs, 
we  will  be  brief.  They  include  what  have  been  termed  parti- 
ciples, not  a  distinct  "  part  of  speech,"  but  by  some  included 
in  the  verbs.  We  use  them  as  adjectives  to  describe  things 
as  standing  in  some  relation  to  other  things  on  the  account 
of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  from  which  they  are 
derived.  "  The  man  is  respected."  Respected,  in  this  case, 
describes  the  man  in  such  a  relation  to  those  v/ho  have  be- 
come  acquainted  with  his  good  qualities,  that  he  now  re- 
ceives  their  respect.  He  is  respectaWe,  {aUe  to  command, 
or  worthy  of  respect,)  and  of  course,  respected  for  his  re- 
spectabi]i^3^  To  avoid  repetition,  we  select  different  words 
to  assist  in  the  expression  of  a  complex  idea.  But  I  indulge 
in  phrases  like  the  above,  to  show  the  nice  shades  of  mean- 
ing in  the  common  use  of  words,  endeavoring  to  analyze,  as 
far  as  possible,  our  words  and  thoughts,  and  show  their  mu- 
tual connexion  and  dependencies. 

What  has  been  termed  the  "  present  participle"  is  also 
an  adjective,  describing  things  in  their  present  condition  in 

*  In  this  respect,  many  foreign  languages  possess  a  great  advan- 
tage over  ours.  They  can  augment  or  diminish  the  same  word  to 
increase  or  lessen  the  meaning.  For  instance  ;  in  the  Spanish,  we 
can  say  Hombre,  a  man  ;  Ho7nbron,  a  lai-ge  man  ;  Hombrecito,  a 
youvg  man,  or  youth ;  Hombrecillo,  a  miserable  little  man  ;  Pa- 
garo,  a  bird  ;  Pagarito,  a  'pretty  little  bird ;  Perro,  a  dog  ;  Perril- 
io,  an  ugly  little  dog  ;  Perrazo,  a  large  dog. 

Tile  Indian  languages  admit  of  diminutives  in  a  similar  way.  In 
the  Delaware  dialect ,  they  are  formed  by  the  suffix  tit,  in  the  class 
of  animate  iiouns ;  but  by  es,  to  the  inaviimate  ;  as,  Senno,  a  man  ; 
Sennoiit,  a  little  man  ;  Wikwam,  a  house  ;  Wiktvain.es,  a  small 
house- — Enc.  Amer.  Art.  Indian  Languages,  vol.  G,  586. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


85 


reference  to  actions.  "  The  man  is  writing."  Here,  writ- 
ing  describes  the  man  in  his  present  employment.  But  the 
consideration  of  this  matter  more  properly  belongs  to  the 
construction  of  sentences. 

There  is  another  class  or  variety  of  words  properly  be- 
longing to  this  division  of  grammar,  which  may  as  well  be 
noticed  in  this  place  as  any  other.  I  allude  to  those  words 
generally  called  "  Prepositions."  We  have  not  time  now 
to  consider  them  at  large,  but  will  give  you  a  brief  view  of 
our  opinion  of  them,  and  reserve  the  remainder  of  our  re- 
marks till  we  come  to  another  part  of  these  lectures. 

Most  of  the  words  called  prepositions,  in  books  of  gram- 
mar, are  participles,  derived  from  verbs,  many  of  which  are 
still  in  use,  but  some  are  obsolete.  They  are  used  in  the 
true  character  of  adjectives,  describing  one  thing  by  its  rela- 
tion to  another.  But  their  meaning  has  not  been  generally 
understood.  Our  dictionaries  have  afforded  no  means  by 
which  we  can  trace  their  etymology.  They  have  been  re- 
garded as  a  kind  of  cement  to  stick  other  words  together, 
having  no  meaning  or  importance  in  themselves.*  Until 
their  meaning  is  known,  we  can  not  reasonably  expect  to 
draw  them  from  their  hiding  places,  and  give  them  a  re- 
speetable  standing  in  the  transmission  of  thought. 

Many  words,  from  the  frequency  of  their  use,  fail  to  at- 
tract our  attention  as  much  as  those  less  employed  ;  not  be- 
cause they  are  less  important,  but  because  they  are  so  fa- 

*  Mr.  Harris,  in  his  "  Hermes,"  says,  "  A  preposition  is  a  part  of 
speech,  devoid  itself  of  signification  ;  but  so  formed  as  to  unite  two 
words  that  are  significant,  and  that  refuse  to  coalesce  or  unite  them- 
selves." 

Mr.  Murray  says,  "  Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with  one 
another,  aud  show  the  relation  between  them." 
H 


86 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


miliarly  known  that  the  operations  of  thought  are  not  ob- 
served in  the  choice  made  of  them  to  express  ideas.  If  we 
use  words  of  which  little  is  known,  we  ponder  well  before 
we  adopt  them,  to  determine  whether  the  sense  usually  at- 
tached to  them  accords  exactly  with  the  notions  we  desire 
to  convey  by  them.  The  same  can  not  be  said  of  small 
words  which  make  up  a  large  proportion  of  our  language, 
and  are,  in  fact,  more  necessary  than  the  others,  in  as  much 
as  their  meaning  is  more  generally  known.  Those  who  em- 
ploy carriages  to  convey  their  bodies,  observe  little  of  their 
construction,  unless  there  is  something  singular  or  fine  in 
their  appearance.  The  common  parts  are  unobserved,  yet 
as  important  as  the  small  words  used  in  the  common  con- 
struction of  language,  the  vehicle  of  thought.  As  the  apos- 
tie  says  of  the  body  politic,  "  those  members  of  the  body, 
which  seem  to  be  more  feeble,  are  necessary  ;"  so  the  words 
least  understood  by  grammarians  are  most  necessary  in  the 
correct  formation  of  language. 

It  is  an  easy  matter  to  get  along  with  the  words  called 
prepositions,  after  they  are  all  learned  by  rote  ;  but  when 
their  meaning  and  use  are  inquired  into,  the  best  grammari- 
ans have  little  to  say  of  them. 

A  list  of  prepositions,  alphabetically  arranged,  is  found  in 
nearly  every  grammar,  which  scholars  are  required  to  com- 
mit to  memory,  without  knowing  any  thing  of  their  mean- 
ing or  use,  only  that  they  are  prepositions  when  an  objec- 
tive word  comes  after  them,  because  the  books  say  so  ;  but 
occasionally  the  same  words  occur  as  adverbs  and  adjec- 
tives. There  is,  however,  no  trouble  in  "  parsing"  them, 
unless  the  list  is  forgotten.  In  that  case,  you  will  see  the 
pupil,  instead  of  inquiring  after  the  meaning  and  duty  of  the 
word,  go  to  the  book  and  search  for  it  in  the  lists  of  prepo- 


MEANING  OF  PREPOSITIONS.  WITH. 


87 


sitions  or  conjunctions  ;  or  to  the  dictionary,  to  see  if  there 
is  a  "  prep."  appended  to  it.  What  will  children  ever  learn 
oflanguage  in  this  way ?  Of  what  avail  is  all  such  gram- 
mar  teaching  ?  As  soon  as  they  leave  school  it  is  all  for- 
gotten ;  and  you  will  hear  them  say,  at  the  very  time  they 
should  be  reaping  the  harvest  of  former  toil,  that  they  once 
understood  grammar,  but  it  is  all  gone  from  them.  Poor 
souls !  their  memory  is  very  treacherous,  else  they  have 
never  learned  language  as  they  ought.  There  is  a  fault 
somewhere.  To  us  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine  where 
it  is. 

That  certain  words  are  prepositions,  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
because  the  books  say  they  are  ;  but  why  they  are  so,  is 
«".ite  ?.r-Cther  rncttcr.  All  we  aesire  is  to  have  their  mean- 
ing understood.  Little  difficulty  will  then  be  found  in  de- 
termining their  use. 

I  l  ave  said  they  are  derived  from  verbs,  many  of  which 
are  obsolete.  Some  are  still  in  use,  both  as  verbs  and 
nouns.  Take  for  example  the  word  with.  This  word 
signifies  joined  or  united.  It  is  used  to  show  that  two  things 
are  some  how  joined  together  so  that  they  are  spoke  of  in 
connexion.  It  frequently  occurs  in  common  conversation, 
as  a  verb  and  noun,  but  not  as  frequently  in  the  books  as 
formerly.  The  farmer  says  to  his  hired  man,  "  Go  and  get 
a  withe  and  come  and  ivithe  up  the  fence  ;"  that  is,  get  some 
pliant  twigs  of  tough  wood,  twist  them  together,  and  withe 
or  bind  them  round  these  posts,  so  that  one  may  stand  firm 
icithf  or  withed  to,  the  other.  A  book  with  a  cover,  is  one 
that  has  a  cover  joined,  bound,  or  attached  to  it.  "  A 
father  with  a  son,  a  man  loith  an  estate,  a  nation  with  a  con- 
stitution."   In  all  such  cases  with  expresses  the  relation 


88 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


between  the  two  things  nnentioned,  produced  by  a  union  or 
connexion  with  each  other.* 

In  is  used  in  the  same  way.  It  is  still  retained  as  a 
noun  and  is  suspended  on  the  signs  of  many  public  houses. 

The  traveller's  wm,"  is  a  house  where  travellers  in  them- 
selves,  or  go  in,  for  entertainment.  It  occurs  frequently  in 
Shakspeare  and  in  more  modern  writers,  as  a  verb,  and  is 
still  used  in  common  conversation  as  an  imperative.  "  Go, 
in  the  crops  of  grain."  In  with  you."  "/n  with  it." 
In  describes  one  thing  by  its  relation  to  another,  which  is  the 
business  of  adjectives.  It  admits  of  the  regular  degrees  of 
comparison  ;  as,  in,  inner,  innermost  or  inmost.  It  also  has 
its  compounds.  Instep,  the  inner  part  of  the  foot,  mlet,  in- 
vestment,  mherltance.  In  this  capacity  it  is  extensively 
used  under  its  different  shades  of  meaning  which  I  cannot 
stop  to  notice. 

Of  signifies  divided,  separated,  or  paHed,  "  The  ship  is 
off  the  coast."  "  I  am  bound  off,  and  you  are  bound  owi." 
"  A  part  of  a  pencil,"  is  that  part  which  is  separated  from 
the  rest,  implying  that  the  act  of  separating,  or  offing,  has 
taken  place.  "  A  branch  o/"  the  tree."  There  is  the  tree ; 
this  branch  is  from  it.  "  Our  communication  was  broken  off 
several  years  ago."  "  Sailors  record  their  offings,  and  pa- 
rents  love  their  o^spring,"  or  those  children  which  sprung 

*  "  Me  thou  shall  use  in  what  thou  wilt,  and  doe  that  with  a 
slender  twist,  that  none  can  doe  with  a  tough  with." 

Euphues  and  his  England,  p.  136. 
"  They  had  arms  ujader  the  straw  in  the  boats,  and  had  cut  the 
withes  that  held  the  oars  of  the  town  boats,  to  prevent  any  pur- 
suit." Ludlow^ s  Memoirs,  p.  435. 

"  The  only  furniture  belonging  to  the  houses,  appears  to  be  an 
oblong  vessel  made  of  bark,  by  tying  up  the  ends  with  a  withe." 

Cookers  Description  of  Botany  Bay. 


OF.  OUT. 


89 


from  them.*  "We  also  are  his  offspring  ;"  that  is,  sprung 
from  God.f  In  all  these,  and  every  other  case,  )''ou  will  per- 
ceive the  meaning  of  the  word,  and  its  office  will  soon  ap- 
pear essential  in  the  expression  of  thought.  Had  all  the 
world  been  a  compact  whole,  nothing  ever  separated  from 
it,  we  could  never  speak  of  a  part  of  it,  for  we  could  never 
have  such  an  idea.  But  we  look  at  things,  as  separated, 
divided,  parted ;  and  speak  of  one  thing  as  separated  from 
the  others.  Hence,  when  we  speak  of  the  part  of  the  earth 
we  inhabit,  we,  in  imagination,  separate  it  from  some  other 
part,  or  the  general  whole.  We  can  not  use  this  word  in 
reference  to  a  thing  which  is  indivisible,  because  we  can  con- 
ceive no  idea  of  a  part  of  an  indivisible  thing.  We  do  not 
say,  a  portion  of  our  mind  taken  as  a  whole,  but  as  capable 
of  division.  A  share  of  our  regards,  supposes  that  the  re- 
mainder is  reserved  for  something  else. 

Out,  outer  or  utter,  ouiermost  or  utmost,  admits  of  the 
same  remark  as  in. 

In  this  manner  we  might  explain  a  long  list  of  words, 
called  adverbs,  conjunctions,  and  prepositions.  But  I  for- 
bear, for  the  present,  the  further  consideration  of  this  sub- 
ject,  and  leave  it  for  another  lecture. 

*  See  Galatians,  chap,  1,  verse  15,  "  When  it  pleased  God,  who 
eeparated  me,"  &c. 

t  Acts,  xvii,  28. 

H* 


LECTURE  VII. 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives. — How  formed. — The  syllable  ly. — Formed  from  proper 
nouns. — The  apostrophe  and  letter  s. — Derived  from  pronouns. — 
Articles. — ^4  comes  from  an, — /^definite. — The. — Meaning  of  a 
and  the. — Murray's  example. — That. — What. — "  Pronoun  adjec- 
tives."— Mon,  ma. — Degrees  of  comparison. — Secondary  adjec- 
tives.— Prepositions  admit  of  comparison. 

We  resume  the  consideration  of  Adjectives.  The  import- 
f\nce  of  this  class  of  words  in  the  expression  of  our  thoughts, 
is  my  excuse  for  bestowing  upon  it  so  much  labor.  Had 
words  always  been  used  according  to  their  primitive  mean- 
ing,  there  would  be  little  danger  of  being  misunderstood. 
But  the  fact  long  known,  ^^Verba  mutanter^^ — words  change 
— has  been  the  prolific  source  of  much  of  the  diversity  of 
opinion,  asperity  of  feeling,  and  apparent  misconstruction  of 
other's  sentiments,  which  has  disturbed  society,  and  dis- 
graced mankind.  I  have,  in  a  former  lecture,  alluded  to 
this  point,  and  call  it  up  in  this  place  to  prepare  your  minds 
lo  understand  what  is  to  be  said  on  the  secondary  use  of 
words  in  the  character  of  adjectives. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  adjectives  in  general,  as  derived 
from  nouns  and  verbs,  and  was  somewhat  particular  upon 
the  class  sometimes  called  prepositions,  which  describe  one 
thing  by  its  relation  to  another,  produced  by  some  action 
which  has  placed  them  in  such  relation.    We  will  now  pass 


HOW  FORMED.  LY.  LIKE. 


91 


to  examine  a  little  more  minutely  into  the  character  and  use 
of  certain  adjectives,  and  the  manner  of  their  derivation. 

We  commence  with  those  derived  from  nouns,  both  com- 
mon  and  proper,  which  are  somewhat  peculiar  in  their  cha- 
racter. I  wish  you  distinctly  to  bear  in  mind  the  use  of  ad- 
jectives. They  are  words  added  to  nouns  to  define  or  de- 
scribe them. 

Many  words  which  name  things,  are  used  as  adjectives, 
with  out  change  ;  as,  ox  beef,  heef  cattle,  paper  books,  straw 
hats,  bonnet  paper.  Others  admit  of  change,  or  addition  ; 
as,  nationaZ  character,  a  mexcxful  (mercy -ful)  man,  a  gloomi/ 
prospect,  a  famous  horse,  a  golden  ball.  The  syllables 
which  are  added,  are  parts  of  words,  which  are  at  first  com- 
pounded with  them,  till,  by  frequency  of  use,  they  are  in- 
corporated  into  the  same  word.  "  A  merciful  man"  is  one 
who  is  full  of  mercy.  A  golden  ball  is  one  made  of  gold. 
This  word  is  sometimes  used  without  change  ;  as,  a  gold 
ring. 

A  numerous  portion  of  these  words  take  the  syllable  ly, 
contracted  from  like,  which  is  still  retained  in  many  words  ; 
as,  Judas-Me,  lady-like,  gentleman-Me.  These  two  last 
words,  are  of  late,  occasionally  used  as  other  words,  ladyZz/, 
gentleman/?/ ;  but  the  last  more  frequently  than  the  former. 
She  behaved  very  ladiZy,  or  ladylike  ;  and  his  appearance 
was  quite  gentleman/?/.  But  to  say  ladUy  appearance,  does 
not  yet  sound  quite  soft  enough  ;  but  it  is  incorrect  only  be- 
cause it  is  uncommon.  Godly  and  godZ/Are  are  both  in  use, 
and  equally  correct,  with  a  nice  shade  of  difference  in 
meaning. 

All  grammarians  have  found  a  difficulty  in  the  word  like, 
which  they  were  unable  to  unravel.  They  could  never  ac- 
count for  its  use  in  expressing  a  relation  between  two  objec- 


92 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


lives.  They  forgot  that  to  be  like,  one  thing  must  be  likened 
to  another,  and  tliat  it  was  the  very  meaning  of  this  word  to 
express  such  likcTie^^.  John  looks  like  his  brother.  The 
looks,  the  countenance,  or  appearance  of  John,  are  likened 
to  his  brother's  looks  or  appearance.  "  This  machine  is 
more  like  the  pattern  than  any  I  have  seen."  Here  the 
adjective  like  takes  the  comparative  degree,  as  it  is  called, 
to  show  a  nearer  resemblance  than  has  been  before  observed 
between  the  things  compared.  "  He  has  a  statesman- 
like  appearance."  I  like  this  apple,  because  it  agrees  with 
my  taste  ;  it  has  qualities  like  my  notion  of  what  is  palate- 
able."  In  every  situation  the  word  is  used  to  express  like- 
ness between  two  things.  It  describes  one  thing  by  its  like- 
ness to  another. 

Many  adjectives  are  formed  from  proper  nouns  by  add- 
ing an  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s,  except  when  the  word 
ends  in  s,  in  which  case  the  final  s  is  usually  omitted  for 
the  sake  of  euphony.  This,  however,  was  not  generally 
adopted  by  old  writers.  It  is  not  observed  in  the  earliest 
translations  of  the  Bible  into  the  english  language.  It  is 
now  in  common  practice.  Thus,  Montgomery's  monument 
in  front  of  St.  Paul's  church  ;  Washington's  funeral  ;  Shay's 
rebclion  ;  England's  bitterest  foes  ;  Hamlet's  father's  ghost ; 
Peter's  wife's  mother  ;  Todd's,  Walker's,  Johnson's  diction- 
ary ;  Winchell's  Watts'  hymns  ;  Pond's  Murray's  grammar. 
No  body  would  suppose  that  the  "  relation  of  property  or 
possession"  was  expressed  in  these  cases,  as  our  grammar 
books  tell  us,  but  that  the  terms  employed  are  used  to  de- 
fine certain  objects,  about  which  we  are  speaking.  They 
possess  the  true  character  and  use  of  adjectives,  and  as 
such  let  them  be  regarded.  It  must  be  as  false  as  frivolous 
to  say  that  Montgomery,  who  nobly  fell  at  the  siege  of 


DERIVED  FROM  PROPER  NOUNS. 


93 


Quebec,  owns  the  monument  erected  over  his  remains,  whicli 
were  conveyed  to  New-York  many  years  after  his  death  ; 
or  that  St.  Paul  owns  or  possesses  the  church  beneath  which 
they  were  deposited  ;  thnt  Hamlet  owned  his  father,  and 
his  father  his  ghost ;  that  Todd  owns  Walker,  and  Walker 
owns  Johnson,  and  Johnson  his  dictionary  which  may  have 
had  a  hundred  owners,  and  never  been  the  property  of  its 
author,  but  printed  fifty  years  after  his  death.  These  words, 
I  repeat,  are  merely  definitive  terms,  and  like  others  serve 
to  point  out  or  specify  particular  objects  which  may  thus  be 
better  known. 

Words,  however,  in  common  use  form  adjectives  the 
same  as  other  words ;  as,  Russia  iron,  China  ships,  India 
©illte,  Vermont  chp.ese.  Orange  county  butter.  New- York 
flour,  Carolina  potatoes.  Morocco  leather  was  first  manu- 
factured in  a  city  of  Africa  called  by  that  name,  but  it  is 
now  made  in  almost  every  town  in  our  country.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  Leghorn  hats,  Russia  binding,  French  shoes, 
and  China  ware.  Although  made  in  our  own  country,  we 
still  retain  the  words,  morocco,  leghorn,  russia,  french,  and 
china,  to  define  the  fashion,  kind,  or  quality  of  articles  to 
which  we  allude.  Much  china  ware  is  made  in  Liverpool, 
which,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  real,  is  called  liverpool 
china.  Many  french  shoes  are  made  in  Lynn,  and  many 
Roxbury  russets,  Newton  pippins,  and  Rhode-Island  green- 
ings, grov/  in  Vermont. 

It  may  not  be  improper  here  to  notice  the  adjectives  de- 
rived from  pronouns,  which  retain  so  much  of  their  charac- 
ter as  relates  to  the  persons  who  employ  them.  These  are 
my,  thy,  his,  her,  its,  our,  your,  their,  whose.  This  is  my 
book,  that  is  your  pen,  this  is  his  knife,  and  that  is  her  let- 
ter.   Some  of  these,  like  other  words,  vary  their  ending 


94 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


when  standing  alone  ;  as,  two  apples  arc  your5,  three  hers, 
six  theirs,  five  ours,  and  the  rest  naine.  His  does  not  aher 
in  popular  use.  Hence  the  reason  why  you  hear  it  so  often, 
in  common  conversation,  when  standing  without  the  noun 
expressed,  pronounced  as  if  written  hisen.  The  word  other, 
and  some  others,  come  under  the  same  remark.  When  the 
nouns  specified  are  expressed,  they  take  the  regular  termi- 
nation ;  as,  give  me  these  Baldwin  apples,  and  a  few  others 
— a  few  other  apples. 

There  is  a  class  of  small  words  which  from  the  frequen- 
cy of  their  use  have,  like  pronouns,  lost  their  primitive 
character,  and  are  now  preserved  only  as  adjectives.  Let 
us  examine  a  few  of  them  by  endeavoring  to  ferret  out  th§U' 
true  meaning  and  application  in  the  expression  of  ideas. 
We  will  begin  with  the  old  articles,  a,  an,  and  the,  by  test- 
ing the  truth  and  propriety  of  the  duty  commonly  assigned 
to  them  in  our  grammars. 

The  standard  grammar  asserts  that  "  an  article  is  a  word 
prefixed  to  substantives,  to  point  them  out,  and  to  show  how 
far  their  signification  extends  ;  as,  "  a  garden,  an  eagle,  the 
woman."  Skepticism  in  grammar  is  no  crime,  so  we  will 
not  hesitate  to  call  in  question  the  correctness  of  this  "  best 
of  all  grammars  beyond  all  comparison."  Let  us  consider 
the  very  examples  given.  They  were  doubtless  the  best 
that  could  be  found.  Does  a  "  point  out"  the  garden,  or 
"  show  how  far  its  signification  extends  ?"  It  does  neither 
of  these  things.  It  may  name  "  any^*  garden,  and  it  cer- 
tainly does  not  define  whether  it  is  a  great  or  a  small  one. 
It  simply  determines  that  one  garden  is  the  subject  of  re- 
mark.   All  else  is  to  be  determined  by  the  word  garden. 


ARTICLES.  ETYMOLOGY  OF  A. 


95 


We  are  told  there  are  are  two  articles,  the  one  mdefinite, 
the  other  definite — a  is  the  former,  and  the  the  latter.  I 
shall  leave  it  with  you  to  reconcile  the  apparent  contradic- 
tion of  an  indefinite  article  which  "  is  used  in  a  vague  sense, 
to  point  out  the  signification  of  another  word."  But  I  chal- 
lenge  teachers  to  make  their  pupils  comprehend  such  a  jar- 
gon, if  they  can  do  it  themselves.  But  it  is  as  good  sense 
as  we  find  in  many  of  the  popular  grammars  of  the  day. 

Again,  Murray  says  "  a  becomes  an  before  a  vowel  or 
silent^;"  and  so  say  all  his  simplifying  satellites  after  him. 
Is  such  the  fact  ?  Is  he  right  ?  He  is,  I  most  unqualifiedly 
admit,  with  this  little  correction,  the  addition  of  a  single 
word — he  is  right  wrong  !  Instead  of  a  becoming  an,  the 
reverse  is  the  fact.  The  word  is  derived  directly  from  the 
same  word  which  still  stands  as  our  first  numeral.  It  was  a 
short  time  since  written  ane,  as  any  one  may  see  by  con- 
sulting all  old  books.  By  and  by  it  dropped  the  e,  and  af- 
terwards,  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  in  certain  cases,  the  n, 
so  that  now  it  stands  a  single  letter.  You  all  have  lived 
long  enough  to  have  noticed  the  changes  in  the  word. 
Formerly  we  said  an  union,  an  holiday,  an  universalist,  an 
unitarian,  &;c.,  expressions  which  are  now  rarely  heard. 
We  now  say  a  union,  &;c.  This  single  instance  proves 
that  arbitrary  rules  of  grammar  have  little  to  do  in  the  reg- 
ulation of  language.  Its  barriers  are  of  sand,  soon  re- 
moved. It  will  not  be  said  that  this  is  an  unimportant  mis- 
take,  for,  if  an  error,  it  is  pernicious,  and  if  a  grammarian 
knows  enough  to  say  that  a  becomes  an,  he  ought  to  know 
that  he  tells  a  falsehood,  and  that  an  becomes  a  under  cer- 
tain circumstances.  Mr.  Murray  gives  the  following  ex- 
ample to  illustrate  the  use  of  a.  "  Give  me  a  book  ;  that 
is,  any  book."    How  can  the  learner  understand  such  a 


96 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


rule?  How  will  it  apply?  Let  us  try  it.  "  A  man  has  a 
wife  ;"  that  is,  any  man  has  any  wife.  I  have  a  hat ;  that 
is,  any  hat.  A  farmer  has  a  farm — any  farmer  has  any 
farm.  A  merchant  in  Boston  has  a  beautiful  piece  of  broad- 
cloth— any  merchant  in  Boston  has  any  beautiful  piece  of 
broadcloth.  A  certain  king  of  Europe  decreed  a  protestant 
to  be  burned — any  king  of  Europe  decreed  any  protestant 
to  be  burned.  How  ridiculous  are  the  rules  we  have  learned 
and  taught  to  others,  to  enable  them  to  "  speak  and  write 
with  propriety."  No  wonder  we  never  understood  gram- 
mar, if  so  at  variance  with  truth  and  every  day's  experi- 
ence. The  rules  of  grammar  as  usually  taught  can  never 
be  observed  in  practice.  Hence  it  is  called  a  dry  study. 
In  every  thing  else  we  learn  something  that  we  can  under- 
stand, which  will  answer  some  good  purpose  in  the  affairs 
of  life.  But  this  branch  of  science  is  among  the  things 
which  have  been  tediously  learned  to  no  purpose.  No  good 
account  can  be  given  of  its  advantages. 

The,  we  are  told,  "  is  called  the  definite  article,  because 
it  ascertains  what  particular  thing  or  things  are  meant."  A 
most  unfortunate  definition,  and  quite  as  erroneous  as  the 
former.  Let  us  try  it.  The  stars  shine,  the  lion  roars,  the 
camel  is  a  beast  of  burden,  the  deer  is  good  for  food,  the 
wind  blows,  the  clouds  appear,  the  Indians  are  abused. 
What  is  there  in  these  examples,  which  "  ascertain  what 
particular  thing  or  things  are  meant  ?"  They  are  expres- 
sions as  ^definite  as  we  can  imagine. 

On  the  other  hand,  should  I  say  a  star  shines,  a  lion  roars, 
an  Indian  is  abused,  a  wind  blows,  a  cloud  appears,  you 
would  understand  me  to  allude  very  definitely  to  one  "  par- 
ticular"  object,  as  separate  and  distinguished  from  others  of 
its  kind. 


ETYMOLOGY  AND  MEANING  OF  A. 


97 


But  what  is  the  wonderful  peculiarity  in  the  meaning  and 
use  of  these  two  little  words  that  naakcs  them  so  unlike 
every  thing  else,  as  to  demand  a  separate  "  part  of  speech  ?" 
You  may  be  surprised  when  I  tell  you  that  there  are  other 
words  in  our  language  derived  from  the  same  source  and 
possessed  of  the  same  meaning  ;  but  such  is  the  fact,  as 
will  soon  appear.  Let  us  ask  for  the  etymology  of  these 
important  words.  A  signifies  one,  never  more,  never  less. 
In  this  respect  it  is  always  definite.  It  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied  to  a  single  thing,  sometimes  to  a  whole  class  of  things, 
to  a  [one]  man,  or  to  a  [one]  hundred  men.  It  may  be 
traced  thro  other  languages,  ancient  and  modern,  with  little 
modification  in  spelling ;  Greek  eis,  ein ;  Latin  imus ; 
Armoric  unan  ;  Spanish  and  Italian  uno ;  Portuguese  hum ; 
French  im ;  German  ein ;  Danish  een,  en  ;  Dutch  een  ; 
Swedish  en ;  Saxon,  an,  aen,  one — from  which  ours  is 
directly  derived — old  English  ane ;  and  more  modernly 
one,  mi,  a.  In  all  languages  it  defines  a  thing  to  be  one,  a 
united  or  congregated  whole,  and  the  word  one  may  always 
be  substituted  without  affecting  the  sense.  From  it  is  de- 
rived  our  word  once,  which  signifies  oned,  united,  joined, 
as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  speak  of  "  contractions.'' 
In  some  languages  a  is  styled  an  article,  in  others  it  is  not. 
The  Latin,  for  instance,  has  no  article,  and  the  Greek  has 
no  indefinite.  But  all  languages  have  words  which  are 
like  ours,  pure  adjectives,  employed  to  specify  certain 
things.  The  argument  drawn  from  the  fact  that  some  other 
languages  have  articles,  and  therefore  ours  should,  is  falla- 
cious.  The  Latin,  which  was  surpassed  for  beauty  of  style 
or  power  in  deliverance  by  few,  if  any  others,  never  suffer- 
ed from  the  lack  of  articles.  Nor  is  there  any  reason  why 
I 


98 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


we  should  honor  two  small  adjectives  with  that  high  rank 
to  the  exclusion  of  others  quite  as  worthy. 

The  is  always  used  as  a  definitive  word,  tho  it  is  the  least 
definite  of  the  defining  adjectives.  In  fact  when  we  desire 
to  "  ascertain  particularly  what  thing  is  meant,"  we  select 
some  more  definite  word.  "  Give  me  the  books."  Which  ? 
"  Those  with  red  covers,  that  in  calf,  and  this  in  Russia 
binding."  The  nations  are  at  peace.  What  nations  ? 
Those  which  were  at  war.  You  perceive  how  we  employ 
words  which  are  more  definite,  that  is,  better  understood,  to 
"  point  ouf^  the  object  of  conversation,  especially  when  there 
is  any  doubt  in  the  case.  What  occasion,  then,  is  there  to 
give  these  [the  ?]  words  a  separate  "  part  of  speech," 
since  in  character  they  do  not  differ  from  others  in  the  lan- 
guage ? 

We  will  notice  another  frivolous  distinction  made  by  Mr. 
Murray,  merely  to  show  how  learned  men  may  be  mis- 
taken, and  the  folly  of  trusting  to  special  rules  in  the  gen- 
eral  application  of  words.  He  says,  Thou  art  a  man," 
is  a  very  general  and  harmless  expression  ;  but,  thou  art 
the  man,  (as  Nathan  said  to  David,)  is  an  assertion  capable 
of  striking  terror  and  remorse  into  the  heart."  The  dis- 
tinction in  meaning  here,  on  which  he  insists,  attaches  to 
the  articles  a  and  the.  It  is  a  suflicient  refutation  of  this 
definition  to  make  a  counter  statement.  Suppose  we  say, 
"  Murray  is  the  best  grammarian  in  the  world  ;  or,  he  is  a 
fool,  a  knave,  and  a  liar."  W'hich,  think  you,  would  be 
considered  the  most  harmless  expression  ?  Suppose  it  had 
been  said  to  Aaron  Burr,  thou  art  a  traitor,  or  to  General 
William  Hull,  thou  art  a  coward,  would  they  regard  the 
phrase  as  "  harmless  /"  On  the  other  hand,  suppose  a 
beautifiil,  accomplished,  and  talented  young  lady,  should 


ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS.  THAT. 


99 


observe  to  one  of  her  suitors,  *♦  I  have  received  offers  of 
marriage  from  several  gentlemen  besides  yourself,  but  thou 
art  THE  man  of  my  choice  ;"  would  it,  think  you,  strike 
terror  and  remorse  into  his  heart  ?  I  should  pity  the  young 
student  of  Murray  whose  feelings  had  become  so  stoical 
from  the  false  teaching  of  his  author  as  to  be  filled  with 
"  terror  and  remorse"  under  such  favorable  circumstances, 
wiiile  fair  prospects  of  future  happiness  were  thus  rapidly 
brightening  before  him.  I  speak  as  to  the  wise,  judge  ye 
what  I  say. 

The  adjective  tlutt  has  obtained  a  very  extensive  appli- 
cation in  language.  However,  it  may  seem  to  vary  in  its 
different  positions,  it  still  retains  its  primitive  meaning.  It 
is  comprised  of  the  and  it,  thait,  theat,  thaet  (Saxon,)  thata 
(Gothic,)  dat  (Dutch.)  It  is  the  most  decided  definitive  in 
our  language.  It  is  by  use  applied  to  things  in  the  singu- 
lar, or  to  a  multitude  of  things  regarded  as  a  whole.  By 
use,  it  applies  to  a  collection  of  ideas  expressed  in  a  sen- 
tence ;  as,  it  was  resolved,  that.  What  ?  Then  follows 
that  fact  which  was  resolved.  "  Provided  that,  in  case  he 
does"  so  and  so.  "  It  was  agreed  that,''  that  fact  was 
agreed  to  which  is  about  to  be  made  known.  I  wish  you 
to  understand,  all  thro  these  lectures,  that  I  shall  honestly 
endeavor  to  expose  error  and  establish  truth.  Wish  you 
to  understand  what  ?  that  fact,  afterwards  stated,  "  I  shall 
endeavor,"  &c.  You  can  not  mistake  my  meaning :  that 
would  be  impossible.  What  would  be  impossible  ?  Why. 
to  mistake  my  meaning. 

You  can  not  fail  to  observe  the  true  character  of  this 
word  called  by  our  grammarians  "  adjective  pronoun," 
"relative  pronoun,"  and  "conjunction,"  They  did  not  think 
to  look  for  its  meaning.    Had  that  (duty)  been  done,  it 


100 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


would  have  stood  forth  in  its  true  character,  an  important 
defining  word. 

The  only  difficulty  in  the  explanation  of  this  word,  origi- 
nates in  the  fact,  that  it  was  formerly  applied  to  the  plural 
as  v/ell  as  singular  number.  It  is  now  applied  to  the  sin- 
gular only  when  referring  directly  to  an  object ;  as,  thcd 
man.  And  it  never  should  be  used  otherwise.  But  we  often 
see  phrases  like  this  ;  "  These  are  the  men  that  rebeled." 
It  should  be,  "  these  are  the  men  who  rebeled."  This  diffi- 
culty can  not  be  overcome  in  existing  grammars  on  any 
other  ground.  In  modern  writings,  such  instances  are  rare. 
This  and  that  are  applied  to  the  singular  ;  these  and  those: 
to  the  plural. 

What  is  a  compound  of  two  original  words,  and  often  re- 
tains the  meaning  of  both,  when  employed  as  a  compound 
relative,  having  in  itself  both  the  antecedent  and  the 
relative,"  as  our  authors  tell  us.  But  when  it  is  dissected, 
it  will  readily  enough  be  understood  to  be  an  adjective,  de- 
fining things  under  particular  relations. 

But  I  shall  weary  your  patience,  I  fear,  if  I  stay  longer 
in  this  place  to  examine  the  etymology  of  small  words.  I 
intended  to  have  shown  the  meaning  and  use  of  many  words 
included  in  the  list  of  conjunctions,  which  are  truly  adjec- 
tives, such  as  hothf  as,  so,  neither,  and,  etc.  ;  but  I  let  them 
pass  for  the  present,  to  be  resumed  under  the  head  of  con- 
tractions. 

From  the  view  we  have  given  of  this  class  of  words,  we 
are  saved  the  tediousness  of  studying  the  grammatical  distinc- 
tions made  in  the  books,  where  no  real  distinctions  exist- 
In  character  these  words  are  like  adjectives  ;  their  meaning, 
like  the  meaning  of  all  other  words,  is  peculiar  to  them- 


PRONOUN  ADJECTIVES. 


101 


selves.  Let  that  be  known,  and  there  will  be  little  difficulty 
ill  classing  them.  We  need  not  confuse  the  learner  with 
"  adjective  pronouns,  possessive  adjective  pronouns,  distri- 
butive adjective  pronouns,  demonstrative  adjective  pronouns, 
indefinite  adjective  pronouns,"  nor  any  other  adjective  pro- 
nouns, which  can  never  be  understood  nor  explained.  Child- 
ren will  be  slow  to  apprehend  the  propriety  of  a  union  of 
adjectives^  and  pronouns,  when  told  that  the  former  is  al- 
wa3'-s  used  with  a  noun,  and  neverybr  one  ;  and  the  latter  al- 
ways ybr  a  noun,  but  never  with  one  ;  and  yet,  that  there  is 
such  a  strange  combination  as  a  "  distributive  or  indefinite 
adjective  pronoun" — "  confusion  worse  confounded." 

In  the  french  language,  the  gender  of  adjectives  is  varied 
so  as  to  agree  with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong.  "  Pos- 
sessive pronouns,"  as  they  are  called,  come  under  the  same 
rule,  which  proves  them  to  be  in  character,  and  formation, 
adjectives  ;  else  the  person  using  them  must  change  gen- 
der. The  father  says,  ma  ({eminme)  fille,  my  daughter ; 
and  the  mother,  mon  (mascuWne)  fils,  my  son  ;  the  same  as 
they  would  say,  hon  pere,  good  father;  honne  mere,  good 
mother  ;  or,  in  Latin,  bonus  pater,  or  bona  mater ;  or,  in 
Spanish,  bueno  padre,  buena  madre.  In  the  two  last  lan- 
guages, as  well  as  all  others,  where  the  adjectives  vary  the 
termination  so  as  to  agree  with  the  noun,  the  same  fact  may 
be  observed  in  reference  to  their  "  pronouns."  If  it  is  a 
fact  that  these  words  are  pronmms,  that  is,  stand  for  other 
nouns,  then  the  father  is  feminine,  and  the  mother  is  mascu. 
line ;  and  whoever  uses  them  in  reference  to  the  opposite 
sex  must  change  gender  to  do  so. 


Describing  adjectives  admit  of  variation  to  express  differ- 
ent degrees  of  comparison.    The  regular  degrees  have  been 


102 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


reckoned  three ;  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative- 
These  are  usually  marked  by  changing  the  termination. 
The  positive  is  determined  by  a  comparison  with  other 
things;  as,  a  great  house,  a  small  book,  compared  with  others* 
of  their  kind.  This  is  truly  a  comparative  degree.  The 
comparative  adds  er  ;  as,  a  greater  house,  a  smaller  book. 
The  superlativej  est ;  as,  the  greate^i  house,  the  smalle^f 
book. 

Several  adjectives  express  a  comparison  less  than  the 
positive,  others  increase  or  diminish  the  regular  degrees; 
as,  whitw/i  white,  very  white,  pure  white  ;  whiter,  consider- 
able whiter,  much  whiter  ;  white^f,  the  very  whitest,  much 
the  whitest  beyond  all  comparison,  so  that  there  can  be  none 
whiter,  nor  so  white. 

We  make  an  aukward  use  of  the  words  great  and  goodr 
in  the  comparison  of  things  ;  as,  a  good  deal,  or  great  deal 
whiter  ;  a  good  many  men,  or  a  great  many  men.  As  we 
never  hear  of  a  small  deal,  or  a  bad  deal  whiter,  nor  of  a 
bad  many,  nor  little  many,  it  would  be  well  to  avoid  such 
phrases. 

The  words  which  are  added  to  other  adjectives,  to  in- 
crease  or  diminish  the  comparison,  or  asist  in  their  defini- 
tion, may  properly  be  called  secondary  adjectives,  for  such 
is  their  character.  They  do  not  refer  to  the  thing  to  be  de- 
fined or  described,  but  to  the  adjective  which  is  affected,  in 
some  way,  by  them.  They  are  easily  distinguished  from 
the  rest  by  noticing  this  fact.  Take  for  example :  "  A  ver^ 
dark  red  raw  silk  lady's  dress  handkerchief.  The  resolu- 
tion of  this  sentence  would  stand  thus  : 

A  {  )  handkerchief. 

A  (  )  red  (  )  handkerchief. 

A  (    )  dark  red  (  )  handkerchief. 


SECONDARY  ADJECTIVES. 


103 


A  very  dark  red  ( 

A  very  dark  red  (   )  silk  ( 

A  very  dark  red  raw  silk  ( 


)  handkerchief. 
)  handkerchief. 
)  handkerchief. 


A  very  dark  red  raw  silk  (       )  dress  handkerchief. 

A  very  dark  red  raw  silk  lady's  dress  liandkerchief. 

We  might  also  observe  that  hand  is  an  adjective,  com- 
pounded by  use  with  kerchief.  It  is  derived  from  the  french 
word  couvrir,  to  cover,  and  cheff  the  head.  It  means  a 
head  dress,  a  cloth  to  cover,  a  neck  cloth,  a  napkin.  By 
habit  we  apply  it  to  a  single  article,  and  speak  of  neck 
handkerchief. 

The  nice  shade  of  meaning,  and  the  appropriate  use  of 
adjectives,  is  more  distinctly  marked  in  distinguishing  colors 
than  in  any  thing  else,  for  the  simple  reason,  that  there  is 
nothing  in  nature  so  closely  observed.  For  instance,  take 
the  word  green,  derived  from  grain,  because  it  is  grain  color, 
or  the  color  of  the  fair  carpet  of  nature  in  spring  and  sum- 
mer. But  this  hue  changes  from  the  deep  grass  green,  to 
the  light  olive,  and  words  are  chosen  to  express  the  thousand 
varying  tints  produced  by  as  many  different  objects.  In  the 
adaptation  of  language  to  the  expression  of  ideas,  we  do  not 
separate  these  shades  of  color  from  the  things  in  which  such 
colors  are  supposed  to  reside.  Hence  we  talk  of  grass,  pea, 
olive,  leek,  verdigris,  emerald,  sea,  and  bottle  green  ;  also,  of 
light,  dark,  medium  ;  very  light,  or  dark  grass,  pea,  olive,  or 
invisible  green. 

Red,  as  a  word,  means  rayed.  It  describes  the  appear- 
ance or  substance  produced  when  rayed,  reddened,  or  radi- 
ated by  the  morning  beams  ')f  the  sun,  or  any  other  radiate 
ing  cause. 

Wh  is  used  for  qu,  in  white,  which  means  quite,  quited, 
quitted,  cleared,  cleansed  of  all  color,  spot,  or  stain. 


104 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


Blue  is  another  spelling  for  blew.  Applied  to  color,  it 
describes  something  in  appearance  to  the  sky,  when  the 
clouds  and  mists  are  blown  away,  and  the  clear  blue  ether 
appears. 

You  will  be  pleased  with  the  following  extract  from  an 
eloquent  writer  of  the  last  century,*  who,  tho  somewhat  ex- 
travagant in  some  of  his  speculations,  was,  nevertheless,  a 
close  observer  of  nature,  which  he  studied  as  it  is,  without 
the  aid  of  human  theories.  The  beauty  of  the  style,  and 
the  correctness  of  the  sentiment,  will  be  a  sufficient  apology 
for  its  length. 

"  We  shall  employ  a  method,  not  quite  so  learned,  to 
convey  an  idea  of  the  generation  of  colors,  and  the  decom- 
position  of  the  solar  ray.  Instead  of  examining  them  in  a 
prism  of  glass,  we  shall  consider  them  in  the  heavens,  and 
there  we  shall  behold  the  five  prinriordial  colours  unfold 
themselves  in  the  order  which  we  have  indicated. 

"  In  a  fine  summer's  night,  when  the  sky  is  loaded  only 
v/ith  some  light  vapours,  sufficient  to  stop  and  to  refract  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  walk  out  into  an  open  plain,  where  the  first 
fires  of  Aurora  may  be  perceptible.  You  will  first  ob- 
serve the  horizon  whiten  at  the  spot  where  she  is  to  make 
her  appearance  ;  and  this  radiance,  from  its  colour,  has 
procured  for  it,  in  the  French  language,  the  name  of  aubey 
(the  dawn,)  from  the  Latin  word  alba,  white.  This  white- 
ness insensibly  ascends  in  the  heavens,  assuming  a  tint  of 
yellow  some  degrees  above  the  horizon  ;  the  yellow  as  it 
rises  passes  into  orange  ;  and  this  shade  of  orange  rises  up- 
ward into  the  lively  vermilion,  which  extends  as  far  as  the 
zenith.    From  that. point  you  will  perceive  in.  the  heavens 

*  St.  Pierre's  Studies  of  Nature. — Dr.  Hunter's  translation,  pp. 

172-176, 


DEGREES  OF  COMPARISON  OBSERVED  IN  COLORS. 


105 


behind  you  the  violet  succeeding  tl]c  vermilion,  then  the 
azure,  after  it  the  deep  blue  or  indigo  colour,  and,  last  of  all, 
the  black,  quite  to  the  westward. 

"  Though  this  display  of  colours  presents  a  multitude  of 
intermediate  shades,  which  rapidly  succeed  each  other,  yet 
at  the  moment  the  sun  is  going  to  exhibit  his  disk,  the 
dazzling  white  is  visible  in  the  horizon,  the  pure  yellow  at 
an  elevation  of  forty-five  degrees  ;  the  fire  color  in  the  zen- 
ith ;  the  pure  blue  forty-five  degrees  under  it,  toward  the 
v/est ;  and  in  the  very  west  the  dark  veil  of  night  still  lin- 
gering on  the  horizon.  I  think  I  have  remarked  this  pro- 
gression  between  the  tropics,  where  there  is  scarcely  any 
horizontal  refraction  to  make  the  light  prematurely  en- 
croach on  the  darkness,  as  in  our  climates. 

"  Sometimes  the  trade- winds,  from  the  north-east  or  south- 
east, blow  there,  card  the  clouds  through  each  other,  then 
sweep  them  to  the  west,  crossing  and  recrossing  them  over 
one  another,  like  the  osiers  interwoven  in  a  transparent  bas- 
ket. They  throw  over  the  sides  of  this  chequered  work 
the  clouds  which  are  not  employed  in  the  contexture,  roll 
them  up  into  enormous  masses,  as  v/hite  as  snow,  draw 
them  out  along  their  extremities  in  the  form  of  a  crupper, 
and  pile  them  upon  each  other,  moulding  them  hito  the 
shape  of  mountains,  caverns,  and  rocks  ;  afterwards,  as 
evening  approaches,  they  grow  somewhat  calm,  as  if  afraid 
of  deranging  their  own  workmanship.  When  the  sun  sets 
behind  this  magnificent  netting,  a  multitude  of  luminous 
rays  are  transmitted  through  the  interstices,  which  produce 
such  an  effect,  that  the  two  sides  of  the  lozenge  illuminatc^J 
by  them  have  the  appearance  of  being  girt  with  gold,  and 
the  other  two  in  the  shade  seem  tinged  with  ruddy  orange. 
Four  or  five  divergent  streams  of  light,  emanated  from  tlie 


106 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


setting  sun  up  to  the  zenitl),  clothe  with  fringes  of  gold  the 
undeterminate  summits  of  this  celestial  barrier,  and  strike 
with  the  reflexes  of  their  fires  tlie  pyramids  of  the  collateral 
aerial  mountains,  which  then  appear  to  consist  silver  and 
vermilion.  At  tliis  moment  of  the  evening  are  perceptible, 
amidst  tlieir  redoubled  ridges,  a  multitude  of  valleys  extend- 
ing into  infinity,  and  distinguishing  themselves  at  their  open- 
ing by  some  shade  of  flesh  or  of  rose  colour. 

"  These  celestial  valleys  present  in  their  different  contours 
inimitable  tints  of  white,  melting  away  into  white,  or  shades 
lengthening  themselves  out  without  mixing  over  other  shades. 
You  see,  here  and  there,  issuing  from  the  cavernous  sides 
of  those  mountains,  tides  of  light  precipitating  themselves,  in 
ingots  of  gold  and  silver,  over  rocks  of  coral.  Here  it  is  a 
gloomy  rock,  pierced  through  and  through,  disclosing,  be- 
yond the  aperture,  the  pure  azure  of  the  firmament  ;  there 
It  is  an  extensive  strand,  covered  with  sands  of  gold,  stretch- 
ing over  the  rich  ground  of  heaven  ;  poppy -coloured,  scarlet, 
and  green  as  the  emerald. 

"  The  reverberation  of  those  western  colours  diflfuses  it- 
self over  the  sea,  whose  azure  billows  it  glazes  with  saff'ron 
and  purple.  The  mariners,  leaning  over  the  gunwale  of 
the  ship,  admire  in  silence  those  aerial  landscapes.  Some- 
times this  sublime  spectacle  presents  itself  to  them  at  the 
hour  of  prayer,  and  seems  to  invite  ihcm  to  lift  up  their 
hearts  with  their  voices  to  the  heavens.  It  changes  every 
instant  into  forms  as  variable  as  the  shades,  presenting  ce- 
lestial colors  and  foi'ms  which  no  pencil  can  pretend  to  imi- 
tate, and  no  language  can  describe. 

"  Travellers  who  have,  at  various  seasons,  ascended  to 
the  summits  of  the  highest  mountains  on  the  globe,  never 
could  perceive,  in  the  clouds  below  them,  any  thing  but  a 


ACTUAL  DISTINCTIONS  OF  COLORS. 


107 


gray  and  lead-colored  surface,  similar  to  that  of  a  lake. 
The  sun,  notwithstanding,  illuminated  them  with  his  whole 
light ;  and  his  rays  might  there  combine  all  the  laws  of  re- 
fraction to  which  our  systems  of  physics  have  subjected 
them.  Hence  not  a  single  shade  of  color  is  employed  in 
vain,  through  the  universe  ;  those  celestial  decorations  be- 
ing made  for  the  level  of  the  earth,  their  magnificent  point 
of  view  taken  from  the  habitation  of  man. 

"  These  admirable  concerts  of  lights  and  forms,  manifest 
only  in  the  lower  region  of  the  clouds  the  least  illuminated 
by  the  sun,  are  produced  by  laws  with  which  I  am  totally 
unacquainted.  But  the  whole  are  reducible  to  five  colors  : 
yellow,  a  generation  from  white  ;  red,  a  deeper  shade  of 
yellow  ;  blue,  a  strong  tint  of  red  ;  and  black,  the  extreme 
tint  of  blue.  This  progression  cannot  be  doubted,  on  ob- 
serving in  the  morning  the  expansion  of  the  light  in  the 
heavens.  You  there  see  those  five  colors,  with  their  inter- 
mediate shades,  generating  each  other  nearly  in  this  order  : 
white,  sulphur  yellow,  lemon  yellow,  yolk  of  egg  yellow, 
orange,  aurora  color,  poppy  red,  full  red,  carmine  red,  pur- 
ple, violet,  azure,  indigo,  and  black.  Each  color  seems  to 
be  only  a  strong  tint  of  that  which  precedes  it,  and  a  faint 
tint  of  that  which  follows  ;  thus  the  whole  together  appear 
to  be  only  modulations  of  a  progression,  of  Avhich  white  is 
the  first  term,  and  black  the  last. 

"  Indeed  trade  cannot  be-  carried  on  to  any  advantage, 
with  the  Negroes,  Tartars,  Americans,  and  East-Indians, 
but  through  the  medium  of  red  cloths.  The  testimonies  of 
travellers  are  unanimous  respecting  the  preference  univer- 
sally given  to  this  color.  I  have  indicated  the  universality 
of  this  taste,  merely  to  demonstrate  the  falsehood  of  the  phi- 
losophic  axiom,  that  tastes  are  arbitrary,  or  that  there  are 


108 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


in  Nature  no  laws  for  beauty,  and  that  our  tastes  are  the 
effects  of  prejudice.  The  direct  contrary  of  this  is  the  truth  ; 
prejudice  corrupts  our  natural  tastes,  otherwise  the  same 
over  the  whole  earth. 

"  With  red  Nature  heightens  the  brilliant  parts  of  the 
most  beautiful  flowers.  She  has  given  a  complete  clothing 
of  it  to  the  rose,  the  queen  of  the  garden  :  and  bestowed 
this  tint  on  the  blood,  the  principle  of  life  in  animals  :  she 
invests  most  of  the  feathered  race,  in  India,  with  a  plumage 
of  this  color,  especially  in  the  season  of  love  ;  and  there  are 
few  birds  without  some  shades,  at  least,  of  this  rich  hue. 
Some  preserve  entirely  the  gray  or  brown  ground  of  their 
plumage,  but  glazed  over  with  red,  as  if  they  had  been  roll- 
ed in  carmine ;  others  are  besprinkled  with  red,  as  if  you 
had  blow^n  a  scarlet  powder  over  them. 

"  The  red  (or  rayed)  color,  in  the  midst  of  the  five  primor- 
dial  colors,  is  the  harmonic  expression  of  them  by  way  of 
excellence  ;  and  the  result  of  the  union  of  two  contraries, 
light  and  darkness.  There  are,  besides,  agreeable  tints, 
compounded  of  the  oppositions  of  extremes.  For  example, 
of  the  second  and  fourth  color,  that  is,  of  yellow  and  blue, 
is  formed  green,  which  constitutes  a  very  beautiful  harmony, 
and  ought,  perhaps,  to  possess  the  second  rank  in  beauty, 
among  colors,  as  it  possesses  the  second  in  their  generation. 
Nay,  green  appears  to  many,  if  not  the  most  beautiful  tint, 
at  least  the  most  lovely,  because  it  is  less  dazzling  than  red, 
and  more  congenial  to  the  eye." 

Many  words  come  under  the  example  previously  given 
to  illustrate  the  secondary  character  of  adjectives,  which 
should  bo  carefully  noticed  by  the  learner,  to  distinguish 
whether  they  define  or  describe  things,  or  are  added  to  in- 
crease the  distinction  made  by  the  adjectives  themselves,  for 


PREPOSITIONS  ADMIT  OF  COMPARISON. 


109 


both  defining  and  describing  adjectives  admit  of  this  addi- 
tion ;  as,  oZ(Z  English  coin,  New  England  rcbeUon  ;  a  mount- 
ed whip,  and  a  gold  mounted  sword — not  a  gold  sword  ;  a 
very  fine  Latin  scholar. 

Secondary  adjectives,  also,  admit  of  comparison  in  vari- 
ous ways ;  as,  dearly  beloved,  a  more  beloved,  the  best  be- 
loved, the  very  best  beloved  brother. 

Words  formerly  called  "  prepositions,"  admit  of  compari- 
son, as  I  have  before  observed.  "  Benhadad  fled  into  an 
inner  chamber."  The  mner  temple.  The  'mmost  recesses 
of  the  heart.  The  out  fit  of  a  squadron.  The  outer  coat- 
ing of  a  vessel,  or  house.  The  uimost  reach  of  grammar. 
The  up  and  down  hill  side  of  a  field.  The  upper  end  of  the 
lot.  The  uppermo^i  seats.  A  part  of  the  book.  Take  it 
farther  off.  The  off  cast.  India  beyond  the  Ganges.  Far 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  nation.  I  shall  goto  the  city. 
I  am  near  to  the  town.  Near  does  not  qualfy  the  verb,  for 
it  has  nothing  to  do  with  it.  I  can  exist  in  one  place  as  well 
as  another.  It  is  below  the  surface  ;  very  far  below  it.  It 
is  above  the  earth — "  high  above  all  height." 

Such  expressions  frequently  occur  in  the  expression  of 
ideas,  and  are  correctly  understood ;  as  difficult  as  it  may 
have  been  to  describe  them  with  the  theories  learned  in  the 
books — sometimes  calling  them  one  thing,  sometimes  an- 
other— when  their  character  and  meaning  was  unchanged, 
or,  according  to  old  systems,  had  "  no  meaning  at  all  of  their 
own  !" 

But  I  fear  I  have  gone  far  beyond  your  patience,  and, 
perhaps,  entered  deeper  into  this  subject  than  was  necessary, 
to  enable  you  to  discover  my  meaning.  I  desired  to  make 
the  subject  as  distinct  as  possible,  that  all  might  see  the  im- 
portant improvement  suggested.  I  am  apprehensive  even 
J 


110 


ON  ADJECTIVES. 


now,  that  some  will  be  compelled  to  think  many  profound 
thoughts  before  they  will  see  the  end  of  the  obscurity  under 
which  they  have  long  been  shrouded,  in  reference  to  the 
false  rules  which  they  have  been'  taught.  But  we  have  one 
consolation — those  who  are  not  bewildered  by  the  grammars 
they  have  tried  in  vain  to  understand,  will  not  be  very  likely 
to  make  a  wrong  use  of  adjectives,  especially  if  they  have 
ideas  to  express  ;  for  there  is  no  more  danger  of  mistaking 
an  adjective  for  a  noun,  or  verb,  than  there  is  of  mistaking 
a  horse  chestnut  for  a  chestnut  horse. 

In  our  next  we  shall  commence  the  consideration  of  Verbs, 
the  most  important  department  in  the  science  of  language, 
and  particularly  so  in  the  system  we  are  defending.  I  hope 
you  have  not  been  uninterested  thus  far  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  subject  of  language,  and  I  am  confident  you  will  not 
be  in  what  remains  to  be  said  upon  it.  The  science,  so  long 
regarded  dry  and  uninteresting,  becomes  delightful  and  easy; 
new  and  valuable  truths  burst  upon  us  at  each  advancing 
step,  and  we  feel  to  bless  God  for  the  ample  means  afforded 
us  for  obtaining  knowledge  from,  and  communicating  it  to 
others,  on  the  most  important  affairs  of  time  and  eternity. 


LECTURE  VIII. 


ON  VERBS. 

Unpleasant  to  expose  error. — Verbs  defined. — Every  thing  acts. — 
Actor  and  object. — Laws. — Man. — Animals. — Vegetables. — Min- 
erals.— Neutrality  degrading. — Nobody  can  explain  a  neuter  verb. 
— One  kind  of  verbs. — You  must  decide. — Importance  of  teach- 
ing children  the  truth. — Active  verbs. — Transitive  verbs  false. — 
Samples. — Neuter  verbs  examined. — Sit. — Sleep. — Stand. — Lie. 
— Opinion  of  Mrs.  W. — Anecdote. 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  that  class  of  words 
wljich  in  the  formation  of  language  are  called  Verbs,  You 
will  allow  me  to  bespeak  your  favorable  attention,  and  to 
insist  most  strenuously  on  the  propriety  of  a  free  and  thoro 
examination  into  the  nature  and  use  of  these  words.  I  shall 
be  under  the  necessity  of  performing  the  thankless  task  of 
exposing  the  errors  of  honest,  wise,  and  good  men,  in  order 
to  remove  difficulties  which  have  long  existed  in  works  on 
language,  and  clear  the  way  for  a  more  easy  and  consist- 
ent explanation  of  this  interesting  and  essential  department 
of  literature.  I  regret  the  necessity  for  such  labors;  but 
no  person  who  wishes  the  improvement  of  mankind,  or  is 
willing  to  aid  the  growth  of  the  human  intellect,  in  its  high 
aspirations  after  truth,  knowledge,  and  goodness,  should 
shrink  from  a  frank  exposition  of  what  he  deems  to  be  er- 
ror, nor  refuse  his  assistance,  feeble  tho  it  may  be,  in  the 
establishment  of  correct  principles. 


112 


ON  VERBS. 


In  former  lectures  we  liave  confined  our  remarks  to 
things  and  a  description  of  their  characters  and  relations, 
so  that  every  entity  of  which  we  can  conceive  a  thought, 
or  concerning  which  we  can  form  an  expression,  has  been 
defined  and  described  in  the  use  of  nouns  and  adjectives. 
Every  thing  in  creation,  of  which  we  think,  material  or  im- 
material,  real  or  imaginary,  and  to  which  we  give  a  name, 
to  represent  the  idea  of  it,  comes  under  the  class  of  words 
called  nouns.  The  words  which  specify  or  distinguish  one 
thing  from  another,  or  describe  its  properties,  character,  or 
relations,  are  designated  as  adjectives.  There  is  only  one 
other  employment  left  for  words,  and  that  is  the  expression 
of  the  actions,  changes,  or  inherent  tendencies  of  things. 
This  important  department  of  knowledge  is,  in  grammar, 
classed  under  the  head  of  Verbs. 

Verb  is  derived  from  the  Latin  verhum,  which  signifies  u 
word.  By  specific  application  it  is  applied  to  those  words 
only  which  express  action,  correctly  understood  ;  the  same 
as  Bible,  derived  from  the  Greek  "  hihlos^''  means  Iherally 
the  hook,  but,  by  way  of  eminence,  is  applied  to  the  sacred 
scriptures  only. 

This  interesting  class  of  words  does  not  deviate  from  the 
correct  principles  which  we  have  hitherto  observed  in  these 
lectures.  It  depends  on  established  laws,  exerted  in  the 
regulation  of  matter  and  thought ;  and  whoever  would  learn 
its  sublime  use  must  be  a  close  observer  of  things,  and  the 
mode  of  their  existence.  The  important  character  it  sus- 
tains in  the  production  of  ideas  of  the  changes  and  tenden- 
cies of  things  and  in  the  transmission  of  thought,  will  be 
found  simple,  and  obvious  to  all. 


EVERY  THING  ACTS.  ACTOR  AND  OBJECT. 


113 


Things  exist ;  Nouns  name  them. 

Things  differ  ;  Adjectives  define  or  describe  them. 

Things  act ;  Verbs  express  their  actions. 

All  Verbs  denote  action. 

By  action,  we  mean  not  only  perceivable  motion,  but  an 
inherent  tendency  to  change,  or  resist  action.  It  matters 
not  whether  we  speak  of  animals  possessed  of  the  power  of 
locomotion  ;  of  vegetables,  which  send  forth  their  branches, 
leaves,  blossoms,  and  fruits  ;  or  of  minerals,  which  retain 
their  forms,  positions,  and  properties.  The  same  principles 
are  concerned,  the  same  laws  exist,  and  should  be  observed 
in  all  our  attempts  to  understand  their  operations,  or  employ 
them  in  the  promotion  of  human  good.  Every  thing  acts 
according  to  the  ability  it  possesses ;  from  the  small  parti- 
cle of  sand,  which  occupies  its  place  upon  the  sea  shore,  up 
thro  the  various  gradation  of  being,  to  the  tall  archangel, 
who  bows  and  worships  before  the  throne  of  the  uncreated 
Cause  of  all  things  and  actions  which  exist  thro  out  his  vast 
dominions. 

As  all  actions  presuppose  an  actor,  so  every  action  must 
result  on  some  object.  No  effect  can  exist  without  an  ef- 
ficient cause  to  produce  it ;  and  no  cause  can  exist  without 
a  corresponding  effect  resulting  from  it.  These  mutual  re- 
lations, helps,  and  dependencies,  are  manifest  in  all  creation. 
Philosophy,  religion,  the  arts,  and  all  science,  serve  only  to 
develope  these  primary  laws  of  nature,  which  unite  and 
strengthen,  combine  and  regulate,  preserve  and  guide  the 
whole.  From  the  Eternal  I  AM,  the  uncreated,  self-exisl- 
ent,  self-sustaining  Cause  of  all  things,  down  to  the  minutest 
particle  of  dust,  evidences  may  be  traced  of  the  existence 
J* 


114 


ON  VERBS. 


and  influence  of  these  laws,  in  themselves  irresistible,  ex- 
ceptionless, and  immutable.  Every  thing  has  a  place  and 
a  duty  assigned  it ;  and  harmony,  peace,  and  perfection  are 
the  results  of  a  careful  and  judicious  observance  of  the  laws 
given  for  its  regulation.  Any  infringement  of  these  laws 
will  produce  disorder,  confusion,  and  distraction. 

Man  is  made  a  little  lower  than  the  angels,  possessed  of 
a  mind  capable  of  reason,  improvement,  and  happiness  ; 
an  intellectual  soul  inhabiting  a  mortal  body,  the  connecting 
link  between  earth  and  heaven — the  material  and  spiritual 
world.  As  a  physical  being,  he  is  subject,  in  common  witii 
other  things,  to  the  laws  which  regulate  matter  :  as  an  in- 
tellectual  being,  he  is  governed  by  the  laws  which  regulate 
mind  :  as  possessed  of  both  a  body  and  mind,  a  code  of 
moral  laws  demand  his  observance  in  all  the  social  relations 
and  duties  of  life.  Obedience  to  these  laws  is  the  certain 
source  of  health  of  body,  and  peace  of  mind.  An  infringe- 
ment of  them  will  as  certainly  be  attended  with  disease  and 
suffering  to  the  one,  and  sorrow  and  anguish  to  the  other. 

Lov.  er  grades  of  animals  partake  of  many  qualities  in 
common  with  man.  In  some  they  are  deficient  ;  in  others 
they  are  superior.  Some  animals  are  possessed  of  all  but 
reason,  and  even  in  that,  the  highest  of  them  come  very  lit- 
tie  short  of  the  lowest  of  the  human  species.  If  they  have 
not  reason,  they  possess  an  instinct  which  nearly  approaches 
it.  These  qualities  dwindle  down  gradually  thro  the  vari- 
ous orders  and  varieties  of  animated  nature,  to  the  lowest 
grade  of  animalculas,  a  multitude  of  which  may  inhabit  a 
single  drop  of  water ;  or  to  the  zoophytes  and  lythophytes, 
which  form  tlie  connecting  link  between  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdom;  as  the  star-fish,  the  polypus,  and 
spunges.    Then  strike  off  into  another  kingdom,  and  ob- 


ANIMALS.  VEGETABLES. — MINERALS.  1 15 


serve  the  laws  of  vegetable  life.  Mark  the  tall  pine  which 
has  grown  from  a  small  seed  which  sent  forth  its  root  down- 
wards and  its  trunk  upwards,  drawing  nourishment  from 
earth,  air,  and  water,  till  it  now  waves  its  top  to  the  passing 
breeze,  a  hundred  feet  above  this  dirty  earth  :  or  the  oak 
or  olive,  which  have  maintained  their  respective  positions  a 
dozen  centuries  despite  the  operations  of  wind  and  weather, 
and  have  shed  their  foliage  and  their  seeds  to  propagate 
their  species  and  extend  their  kinds  to  different  places. 
While  a  hundred  generations  have  lived  and  died,  and  the 
country  often  changed  masters,  they  resist  oppression,  scorn 
misrule,  and  retain  rights  and  privileges  which  are  slowly 
encroached  upon  by  the  inroads  of  time,  which  will  one 
day  triumph  over  them,  and  they  fall  helpless  to  the  earth, 
to  submit  to  the  chemical  operations  which  shall  dissolve 
their  very  being  and  cause  them  to  mingle  with  the  com- 
mon dust,  yielding  their  strength  to  give  life  and  power  to 
other  vegetables  which  shall  occupy  their  places.*  Or  mark 
the  living  principle  in  the  "  sensitive  plant,"  which  withers 
at  every  touch,  and  suffers  long  ere  it  regains  its  former 
vigor. 

Descend  from  thence,  down  thro  the  various  gradations  of 
vegetable  life,  till  you  pass  the  narrow  border  and  enter  the 
mineral  world.  Here  you  will  see  displayed  the  same  sub- 
lime principle,  tho  in  a  modified  degree.  Minerals  assume 
different  shapes,  hues  and  relations  ;  they  increase  and  di- 

*  It  is  reported  on  very  good  authority  that  the  same  olive  trees 
arc  now  standing  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane  under  which  the 
Saviour  v/ept  and  near  which  he  was  betrayed.  This  is  rendered 
more  probable  from  the  fact,  that  a  tax  is  laid,  by  the  Ottoman 
Porte,  on  all  olive  trees  planted  since  Palestine  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Turks,  and  that  several  trees  standing  in  Gethsemane 
do  not  pay  such  tribute,  while  all  others  do. 


116 


ON  VERBS. 


minish,  attach  and  divide  under  various  circumstances,  all 
the  while  retaining  their  identity  and  properties,  and  exert- 
ing their  abihtics  according  to  the  means  they  possess,  till 
compelled  to  yield  to  a  superior  power,  and  learn  to  submit 
to  the  laws  which  operate  in  every  department  of  this  mu- 
table world. 

Every  thing  acts  according  to  the  ability  God  has  be- 
stowed upon  it ;  and  man  can  do  no  more.  He  has  author- 
ity over  all  things  on  earth,  and  yet  he  is  made  to  depend 
upon  all.  His  authority  extends  no  farther  than  a  privi- 
lege, under  wholesome  restrictions,  of  making  the  whole 
subservient  to  his  real  good.  When  he  goes  beyond  this,  he 
usurps  a  power  which  belongs  not  to  him,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  happiness  pays  the  forfeit  of  his  imprudence. 
The  injured  power  rises  triumpl^^nt  over  the  aggressor,  and 
the  glory  of  God's  government,  in  the  righteous  and  imme- 
diate execution  of  his  laws,  is  clearly  revealed.  So  long  as 
man  obeys  the  laws  which  regulate  health,  observes  tem- 
perance in  all  things,  uses  the  things  of  this  world  as  not 
abusing  them,  he  is  at  rest,  he  is  blessed,  he  is  happy  :  but 
no  sooner  has  he  violated  heaven's  law  than  he  becomes  the 
slave,  and  the  servant  assumes  the  master.  But  I  am  di- 
grossing.  I  would  gladly  follow  this  subject  further,  but  I 
shall  go  beyond  my  Hmits,  and,  it  may  be,  your  patience. 

I  would  insist,  however,  on  the  facts  to  which  your  cit- 
tention  has  been  given,  for  it  is  impossible,  as  I  have  before 
contended,  to  use  language  correctly  vvithout  a  knowledge 
of  the  things  and  ideas  it  is  employed  to  represent. 

Grovelling,  indeed,  must  be  the  mind  which  will  not  trace 
the  sublime  exhibitions  of  Divine  power  and  skill  in  all  the 
operations  of  nature  ;  and  false  must  be  that  theory  which 
teaches  the  young  mind  to  think  and  speak  of  neutrality. as 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  VERBS  FALSE. 


117 


altachcd  to  things  which  do  exist.  As  low  and  debasing  as 
the  speculations  of  the  schoolmen  were,  they  gave  to  things 
which  they  conceived  to  be  incapable  of  action,  a  principle 
which  they  called  "  vis  inerticR,^^  or,  •power  to  lie  still.  Shall 
our  systems  of  instruction  descend  below  them,  throw  an 
insurmountable  barrier  in  the  way  of  human  improvement, 
and  teach  the  false  principles  that  actions  can  exist  with- 
out an  effect,  or  that  there  is  a  class  of  words  which 
"express  neither  action  or  passion."  Such  a  theory  is  at 
war  with  the  first  principles  of  philosophy,  and  denies  that 
"like  causes  produce  like  effects." 

The  ablest  minds  have  never  been  able  to  explain  the 
foundation  of  a  "  neuter  verb,"  or  to  find  a  single  word,  with 
a  solitary  exception,  which  does  not,  in  certain  conditions, 
express  a  positive  action,  and  terminate  on  a  definite  object; 
and  that  exception  we  shall  see  refers  to  a  verb  which  ex- 
presses the  highest  degree  of  conceivable  action.  Still  they 
have  insisted  on  three  and  some  on  four  kinds  of  verbs,  one 
expressing  action,  another  passion  or  suffering,  and  the 
third  neutrality.  We  propose  to  offer  a  brief  review  of 
these  distinctions,  which  have  so  long  perplexed,  not  only 
learners,  but  teachers  themselves,  and  been  the  fruitful 
source  of  much  dissention  among  grammarians. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  yow  will  come  up  to  this  work  with  as 
great  candor  as  you  have  heretofore  manifested,  and  as 
fully  resolved  to  take  nothing  for  granted,  because  it  has 
been  said  by  good  or  great  men,  and  to  reject  nothing  be- 
cause it  appears  new  or  singular.  Let  truth  be  our  object 
and  reason  our  guide  to  direct  us  to  it.  We  can  not  fail 
of  arriving  at  safe  and  correct  conclusions. 

Mr.  Murray  tells  us  that  "  verbs  are  of  three  kinds,  ac 
tive,  passive,  and  neuter.    In  a  note  he  admits  of  "  active 


118 


ON  VERBS. 


transitive  and  intransitive  verbs,"  as  a  subdivision  of  his 
first  kind.  Most  of  his  "  innprovers"  have  adopted  this  dis- 
tinction, and  regard  it  as  of  essential  importance. 

We  shall  contend,  as  before  expressed,  that  all  verbs  are 
of  one  kind,  that  they  exj)7'ess  action,  for  the  simple  yet 
sublime  reason,  that  every  thing  acts,  at  all  times,  and  un- 
der every  possible  condition;  according  to  the  true  definition 
of  action  as  understood  and  employed  by  all  writers  on 
grammar,  and  natural  and  moral  science.  Here  we  are  at 
issue.  Both,  contending  for  principles  so  opposite,  can  not 
be  correct.  One  or  the  other,  however  pure  the  motives, 
must  be  attached  to  a  system  wrong  in  theory,  and  of  course 
pernicious  in  practice.  You  are  to  be  the  umpires  in  the 
case,  and,  if  you  are  faithful  to  your  trust,  you  will  not  be 
bribed  or  influenced  in  the  least  by  the  opinions  of  others. 
If  divested  of  all  former  attachments,  if  free  from  all  prejudice, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  safety  and  correctness  of  your 
conclusions.  But  I  am  apprehensive  I  expect  too  much,  if  I 
place  the  new  system  of  grammar  on  a  footing  equally  fa- 
vorable in  your  minds  with  those  you  have  been  taught  to 
respect,  as  the  only  true  expositions  of  language,  from  your 
childhood  up,  and  which  are  recommended  to  you  on  the 
authority  of  the  learned  and  good  of  many  generations.  I 
have  to  combat  early  prejudices,  and  systems  long  consid- 
ered as  almost  sacred.  But  I  have  in  my  favor  the  common 
sense  of  the  world,  and  a  feeling  of  opposition  to  existing 
systems,  which  has  been  produced,  not  so  much  by  a  detec- 
tion of  their  errors,  as  by  a  lack  of  capacity,  as  the  learner 
verily  thought,  to  understand  their  profound  mysteries.  I 
am,  therefore,  willing  to  risk  the  final  decision  with  you,  if 
you  will  decide.  But  I  am  not  willing  to  have  you  made 
the  tools  of  the  opposite  party,  determined,  whether  con. 


CHILDREN  SHOULD  BE  TAUGHT  TRUTH.  119 

vinccd  or  not,  to  hold  to  your  old  neuter  verb  systems,  right 
or  wrong,  merely  because  others  are  doing  so.  All  I  ask 
is  your  adoption  of  what  is  proved  to  be  undeniably  true, 
and  rejection  of  whatever  is  found  to  be  false. 

Here  is  where  the  matter  must  rest,  for  it  will  not  be  pre- 
tended that  it  is  better  to  teach  falsehood  because  it  is  an- 
cient  and  popular,  than  truth  because  it  is  novel.  Teach- 
ers, in  this  respect,  stand  in  a  most  responsible  relation  to 
their  pupils.  They  should  always  insist  with  an  unyielding 
pertinacity,  on  the  importance  of  truth,  and  the  evils  of  er- 
ror. Every  trifling  incident,  in  the  course  of  education, 
which  will  serve  to  show  the  contrast,  should  be  particu- 
larly observed.  If  an  error  can  be  detected  in  their  books, 
they  should  be  so  taught  as  to  be  able  to  correct  it ;  and 
they  should  be  so  inclined  as  to  be  wilhng  to  do  it.  They 
should  not  be  skeptics,  however,  but  close  observers,  origi- 
nal  thinkers,  and  correct  reasoners.  It  is  degrading  to  the 
true  dignity  and  independence  of  man,  to  submit  blindly  to 
any  proposition.  Freedom  of  thought  is  the  province  of  all. 
Children  should  be  made  to  breathe  the  free  air  of  honest 
inquiry,  and  to  inhale  the  sweet  spirit  of  truth  and  charity. 
They  should  not  study  their  books  as  the  end  of  learning, 
but  as  a  means  of  knowing.  Books  should  be  regarded  as 
lamps,  which  are  set  by  the  way  side,  not  as  the  objects  to 
be  looked  at,  but  the  aids  by  which  we  may  find  the  object 
of  our  search.  Knowledge  and  usefulness  constitute  the 
leading  motives  in  all  study,  and  no  occasion  should  be  lost, 
no  means  neglected,  which  will  lead  the  young  mind  to  their 
possession. 

Your  attention  is  now  invited  to  some  critical  remarks  on 
the  distinctions  usually  observed  in  the  use  of  verbs.  Let 
us  carefully  examine  the  meaning  of  these  three  kinds  and 


120 


ON  VERBS. 


see  if  there  is  any  occasion  for  such  a  division  ;  if  they  have 
any  foundation  in  truth,  or  appUcation  in  the  correct  use  of 
language.  We  will  follow  the  arrangements  adopted  lA* 
the  most  popular  grammars. 

"  A  verb  active  expresses  an  action,  and  necessarily  im- 
})lies  an  agent,  and  an  object  acted  upon ;  as,  to  love,  I  love 
Penelope."  A  very  excellent  definition,  indeed  !  Had 
grammarians  stopped  here,  their  works  would  have  been 
understood,  and  proved  of  some  service  in  the  study  of  lan- 
guage. But  when  they  diverge  from  this  bright  spot  in  the 
consideration  of  verbs — this  oasis  in  the  midst  of  a  desert — 
they  soon  become  lost  in  the  surrounding  darkness  of  con- 
jecture, and  follow  each  their  own  dim  light,  to  hit  on  a 
random  track,  which  to  follow  in  the  pursuit  of  their  object. 

We  give  our  most  hearty  assent  to  the  above  definition 
of  a  verb.  It  expresses  action,  which  necessarily  implies 
an  actor,  and  an  ohject  influenced  by  the  action.  In  our 
estimation  it  matters  not  whether  the  object  on  which  the 
action  terminates  is  expressed  or  understood.  If  I  love.  I 
must  love  some  object ;  either  my  neighbor,  my  enemy,  my 
family,  myself,  or  something  else.  In  either  case  the  action 
is  the  same,  tho  the  objects  may  be  different ;  and  it  is  re- 
garded,  on  all  hands,  as  an  active  verb.  Hence  when  the 
object  on  which  the  action  terminates  is  not  expressed,  it  is 
necessarily  understood.  All  language  is,  in  this  respect, 
more  or  less  eliptical,  which  adds  much  to  its  richness  and 
brevity. 

Active  verbs,  we  are  told,  are  divided  into  transitive  and 
intransitive.  Mr.  Murray  does  not  exactly  approve  of  this 
distinction,  but  prefers  to  class  the  intransitive  and  neu- 
ter  together.  Others,  aware  of  the  fallacy  of  attempting  to 
make  children  conceive  any  thing  like  neutrality  in  the 


TRANSITIVE  VERBS. 


121 


verbs,  run,  fiij,  walk,  live,  &c.,  have  preferred  to  mark  the 
distinction  and  call  them  ^transitive;  because,  say  they,  they 
do  not  terminate  on  any  object  expressed. 

A  transitive  verb  "  expresses  an  action  which  passes  from 
the  agent  to  the  object;  as,  Caesar  conquered  Pompey." 
To  this  definition  we  can  not  consent.  It  attempts  a  dis- 
tinction where  there  is  none.  It  is  not  true  in  principle,  and 
can  not  be  adopted  in  practice. 

"  Coesar  conquered  Pompey."  Did  the  act  of  conquering 
pass  transitively  over  from  Ccesar  to  Pompey  ?  They  might 
not  have  seen  each  other  during  the  whole  battle,  nor  been 
within  many  miles  of  each  other.  They,  each  of  them, 
stood  at  the  head  of  their  armies,  and  alike  gave  orders  to 
their  subordinate  officers,  and  they  again  to  their  inferiors, 
and  so  down,  each  man  contending  valiantly  for  victory,  till, 
at  last,  the  fate  of  the  day  sealed  the  downfall  of  Pompey, 
and  placed  the  crown  of  triumph  on  the  head  of  Caesar.  The 
expression  is  a  correct  one,  but  the  action  expressed  by  the 
verb  "  conquered,"  is  not  transitive,  as  that  term  is  under- 
stood.  A  whole  train  of  causes  was  put  in  operation  which 
finally  terminated  in  the  defeat  of  one,  and  the  conquest  of 
the  other. 

"  Bonaparte  Zo5^  the  battle  of  Waterloo."  What  did 
do  to  lose  the  battle  ?  He  exerted  his  utmost  skill  to  gain 
the  battle  and  escape  defeat.  He  did  not  do  a  single  act, 
he  entertained  not  a  single  thought,  which  lead  to  such  a 
result ;  but  strove  against  it  with  all  his  power.  If  the  fault 
was  his,  it  was  because  he  failed  to  act,  and  not  because  he 
labored  to  lose  the  battle.  He  had  too  much  at  stake  to 
adopt  such  a  course,  and  no  man  but  a  teacher  of  grammar, 
would  ever  accuse  him  of  acting  to  lose  the  battle. 


122 


ON  VERBS. 


"  A  man  was  sick  ;  he  desired  to  recover  (his  heahh). 
He  took  for  medicine,  opium  by  mistake,  and  lost  his  life 
by  it."  Was  he  guilty  of  suicide  ?  Certainly,  if  our  gram- 
mars are  true.    But  he  lost  his  life  in  trying  to  get  well. 

"  A  man  in  America  possesses  property  in  Europe,  and 
his  children  inherit  it  after  his  death."  What  do  the  child- 
ren do  to  inherit  this  property,  of  which  they  know  nothing? 

"  The  geese,  by  their  gabbling,  saved  Rome  from  de- 
struction."  How  did  the  geese  save  the  city  ?  They  made 
a  noise,  which  waked  the  sentinels,  who  roused  the  soldiers 
to  arms  ;  they  fought,  slew  many  Gauls,  and  delivered  the 
city. 

"  A  man  in  New-York  transacts  business  in  Canton." 
How  does  he  do  it  ?  He  has  an  agent  there  to  whom  he 
sends  his  orders,  and  he  transacts  the  business.  But  how 
does  he  get  his  letters  ?  The  clerk  writes  them,  the  post- 
man carries  them  on  board  the  ship,  the  captain  commands 
the  sailors,  who  work  the  ropes  which  unfurl  the  sails,  the 
wind  blows,  the  vessel  is  managed  by  the  pilot,  and  after  a 
weary  voyage  of  several  months,  the  letters  are  delivered 
to  the  agent,  who  does  the  business  that  is  required  of  him. 

The  miser  denies  himself  every  comfort,  and  spends  his 
whole  life  in  hoarding  up  riches  ;  and  yet  he  dies  and  leaves 
his  gold  to  be  the  possession  of  others. 

Christians  suffer  insults  almost  every  day  from  the  Turks. 

Windows  admit  light  and  exclude  cold. 

Who  can  discover  any  thing  like  transitive  action — a 
passing  from  the  agent  to  the  object — in  these  cases  ?  What 
transitive  action  do  the  windows  perform  to  admit  the  light ; 
or  the  christians,  to  suffer  insults ;  or  the  miser,  to  leave  his 
money  ?  If  there  is  neutrality  any  where,  we  would  look  for 
it  here.    The  fact  is,  these  words  express  relative  action,  as 


NEUTER  VERBS.  SIT. 


123 


wc  shall  explain  when  vvc  come  to  the  examination  of  the 
true  character  of  the  verb. 

Neutrality  signifies  (transitive  verb !)  no  action,  and  neM- 
ter  verbs  express  a  state  of  being  !  A  class  of  words  which 
can  not  act,  which  apply  to  things  in  a  quiescent  state,  per- 
form the  transitive  action  of"  expressing  a  state  of  being  !" 

Who  does  not  perceive  the  inconsistency  and  folly  of  such 
distinctions  ?  And  who  has  not  found  himself  perplexed,  if 
not  completely  bewildered  in  the  dark  and  intricate  laby- 
rinths into  which  he  has  been  led  by  the  false  grammar 
books !  Every  attempt  he  has  made  to  extricate  himself,  by 
the  dim  light  of  the  "  simplifiers,"  has  only  tended  to  be- 
wilder him  still  more,  till  he  is  utterly  confounded,  or  else 
abandons  the  study  altogether. 

An  intransitive  verb  "  denotes  action  which  is  confined  to 
tlv  actor,  and  does  not  pass  over  to  another  object ;  as,  I 
sit,  he  lives,  they  sleep." 

"  A  verb  neuter  expresses  neither  action  nor  passion,  but 
being,  or  a  state  of  being  ;  as,  I  am,  I  sleep,  I  sit." 

These  verbs  are  nearly  allied  in  character ;  but  we  will 
examine  them  separately  and  fairly.  The  examples  are 
the  same,  with  exception  of  the  verb  to  be,  which  we  will 
notice  by  itself,  and  somewhat  at  large,  in  another  place. 

Our  first  object  will  be  to  ascertion  the  meaning  and  use 
of  the  words  which  have  been  given  as  samples  of  neutral- 
ity. It  is  unfortunate  for  the  neuter  systems  that  they  can 
not  define  a  "  neuter  verb"  without  making  it  express  an  ac- 
tion which  terminates  on  some  object. 

"  The  man  sits  in  his  chair." 

Sits,  we  arc  told,  is  a  neuter  verb.  What  does  it  mean  \ 
The  mm\  places  himself  in  a  sitting  posture  in  his  seat.  He 


124 


ON  VERBS. 


keeps  himself  in  his  chair  by  muscular  energy,  assisted  by 
gravitation.  The  chair  upholds  him  in  that  condition.  Bring 
a  small  child  and  sit  it  (active  verb,)  in  a  chair  beside  him. 
Can  it  sit?  No  ;  it  falls  upon  the  floor  and  is  injured.  Why 
did  it  fall  ?  It  was  not  able  to  keep  itself  from  falling.  The 
lady  fainted  and/eZZ  from  her  seat.  If  there  is  no  action  in 
sitting,  why  did  she  not  remain  as  she  was  ?  A  company  of 
ladies  and  gentlemen  from  the  boarding  school  and  college, 
entered  the  parlor  of  a  teacher  of  neuter  verbs  ;  and  he 
asked  them  to  sit  down,  or  be  seated.  They  were  neutral. 
He  called  them  impolite.  But  they  replied,  that  sit  "  ex- 
presses neither  action  nor  passion,"  and  hence  he  could  not 
expect  them  to  occupy  his  seats. 

"  Sit  or  set  it  away  ;  sit  near  me  ;  sit  farther  along  ;  sil 
still are  expressions  used  by  every  teacher  in  addressing 
his  scholars.  On  the  system  we  are  examining,  what  would 
they  understand  by  such  inactive  expressions  ?  Would  he 
not  correct  them  for  disobeying  his  orders  ?  But  what  did 
he  order  them  to  do  ?  Nothing  at  all,  if  sit  denotes  no  ac 
tion. 

"I  sat  me  down  and  wept." 

"  He  sat  him  down  by  a  pillar's  base, 

And  drew  his  hand  athwart  his  face." — Byron. 

"  Then,  having  shown  his  wounds,  he 'd  sit  him  down, 
And,  all  the  live  long  day,  discourse  of  war." 

Tragedy  of  Douglass. 

But  wherefore  sits  he  there  ? 
Death  on  ray  state  !  This  act  convinces  me 
That  this  retiredness  of  the  duke  and  her, 
Is  plain  contempt." — King  Lear. 

"  Sitting,  the  act  of  resting  on  a  seat. 

Session,  the  act  of  sitting." — Johnson's  Dictionary. 


NEUTER  VERBS.  SLEEP. 


125 


«  I  sleep,'' 

Is  sleep  a  neuter  verb  1  So  wc  are  gravely  told  by  our 
authors.  Can  grammarians  follow  their  own  rules?  If  so, 
they  may  spend  the  "live  long  night"  and  "its  waking 
hours,"  without  resorting  to  "  tired  nature's  sweet  restorer, 
balmy  sleep  ;"  for  there  is  no  process  under  heaven  where- 
by  they  can  procure  sleep,  unless  they  sleep  it.  For  one,  I 
can  never  sleep  without  sleeping  sleep — sometimes  only  a 
short  nap.  It  matters  not  whether  the  object  is  expressed 
or  not.  The  action  remains  the  same.  The  true  object  is 
necessarily  understood,  and  it  would  be  superfluous  to  name 
it.  Cases,  however,  often  occur  where,  both  in  speaking 
and  writing,  it  becomes  indispensable  to  mention  the  object. 
"  The  stout  hearted  have  slept  their  sleep."  "  They  shall 
sleep  the  sleep  of  death."  "  They  shall  sleep  the  perpetual 
sleep,  and  shall  not  awake."  "Sleep  on  now  and  take  your 
rest."  The  child  was  troublesome  and  the  mother  sung  it 
to  sleep,  and  it  slept  itself  quiet.  A  lady  took  opium  and 
slept  herself  to  death.  "  Many  persons  sleep  themselves 
into  a  kind  of  unnatural  stupidity."  Rip  Van  Winkle,  ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  slept  away  a  large  portion  of  a  com- 
mon life. 

Sleep,  sleep  to-day,  tormenting  cares." 

And  sleep  dull  cares  away." 

Was  your  sleep  refreshing  last  night  ?  How  did  you  pro- 
cure it  ?  Let  a  person  who  still  adheres  to  his  neuter  verbs, 
that  sleep  expresses  no  action,  and  has  no  object  on  which 
it  terminates,  put  his  theory  in  practice  ;  he  may  as  well 
sleep  with  his  eyes  open,  sitting  up,  as  to  lie  himself  upon  his 
bed. 


126 


ON  VERBS. 


A  man  lodged  in  an  open  chamber,  and  while  he  was 
sleeping  (doing  nothing)  he  caught  a  severe  cold  (active 
transitive  verb)  and  had  a  long  run  of  the  fever.  Who 
does  not  see,  not  only  the  bad,  but  also  the  false  philosophy 
of  such  attempted  distinctions.  How  can  you  make  a  child 
discover  any  difference  in  the  act  of  sleeping,  whether  there 
is  an  object  after  it,  or  not  ?  Is  it  not  the  same  ?  And  is  not 
the  object  necessarily  implied,  whether  expressed  or  not  ? 
Can  a  person  sleep,  without  procuring  sleep  ? 

''I  stand:' 

The  man  stands  firm  in  his  integrity.  Another  stands  in 
a  very  precarious  condition,  and  being  unable  to  retain  his 
\\o\<\,  falls  down  the  precipice  and  is  killed.  Who  is  killed  ? 
The  man,  surely.  Why  did  he  fall  ?  Because  he  could  not 
stand.    But  there  is  no  action  in  standing,  say  the  books. 

"  Stand  by  thyself,  come  not  near  me  ?"  "  Stand  fast 
in  the  liberty  wherewith  Christ  hath  made  you  free,  and  he 
not  again  entangled  in  the  yoke  of  bondage."  "Let  him 
that  thinketh  he  standeth,  take  heed  lest  he  fall.''''  If  it  re- 
quires no  act  to  stand,  there  can  be  no  danger  of  falling. 

"  Two  pillars  stood  together ;  the  rest  had  fallen  to  the 
ground.  The  one  on  the  right  was  quite  perfect  in  all  its 
parts.  The  other  resembled  it  very  much,  except  it  had  lost 
its  capital,  and  suffered  some  other  injuries."  How  could 
the  latter  column,  while  performing  no  action  in  standing, 
act  transitively,  acording  to  our  grammars,  and  do  something 
to  resemble  the  other  ?  or,  what  did  it  do  to  lose  its  capital, 
and  suffer  other  injury  ? 

«  To  lie,  or  lay." 

It  has  been  admitted  that  the  verbs  before  considered  are 
often  used  as  active  verbs,  and  that  there  is,  in  truth,  action 


NEUTER  VERBS. — LIE. 


127 


expressed  by  them.  But  when  the  man  has  fallen  from  his 
scat  and  lies  upon  the  floor,  it  is  contended  that  he  no  long- 
er acts,  and  that  lie  expresses  no  action.  He  has  ceased 
from  physical,  muscular  action  regulated  by  his  will,  and 
is  now  subject  to  the  common  laws  which  govern  matter. 

Let  us  take  a  strong  example.  The  book  lies  or  Jays 
on  the  desk.  Now  you  ask,  does  that  book  perform  any 
action  in  laying  on  the  desk  ?  I  answer,  yes  ;  and  I  will 
prove  it  on  the  principles  of  the  soundest  philosophy,  to  the 
satisfaction  of  every  one  present.  Nor  will  I  deviate  from 
existing  grammars  to  do  it,  so  far  as  real  action  is  con- 
cerned. 

The  book  lies  on  the  desk.  The  desk  supports  the  book. 
Will  you  parse  supports  7  It  is,  according  to  every  system, 
an  active  transitive  verb.  It  has  an  objective  case  after  it 
on  which  the  action  terminates.  But  what  does  the  desk 
do  to  support  the  book  ?  It  barely  resists  the  action  which 
the  book  performs  in  lying  on  it.  The  action  of  the  desk 
and  book  is  reciprocal.  But  if  the  book  does  not  act,  nei- 
ther can  the  desk  act,  for  that  only  repels  the  force  of  the 
book  in  pressing  upon  it  in  its  tendency  towards  the  earth, 
in  obedience  to  the  law  of  gravitation.  And  yet  our  au- 
thors have  told  us  that  the  desk  is  active  in  resisting  no  ac- 
tion of  the  book  !  No  wonder  people  are  unable  to  under- 
stand grammar.  It  violates  the  first  principles  of  natural 
science,  and  frames  to  itself  a  code  of  laws,  unequal,  false, 
and  exceptionable,  which  bear  no  affinity  to  the  rest  of  the 
world,  and  will  not  apply  in  the  expression  of  ideas. 

I  was  once  lecturing  on  this  subject  in  one  of  the  cities  of 
New-York.  Mrs.  W.,  the  distinguished  teacher  of  one  of 
the  most  popular  Female  Seminaries  in  our  country,  attend- 
ed.   At  the  close  of  one  lecture  she  remarked  that  the 


128 


ON  VERBS. 


greatest  fault  she  had  discovered  in  the  new  system,  was 
the  want  of  a  class  of  words  to  express  neutrality.  Chil- 
dren,  she  said,  conceived  ideas  of  things  in  a  quiescent  state, 
and  words  should  be  taught  them  by  which  to  communicate 
such  ideas.  I  asked  her  for  an  example.  She  gave  the 
rock  in  the  side  of  the  mountain.  It  had  never  moved.  It 
could  never  act.  There  it  had  been  from  the  foundation 
of  the  earth,  and  there  it  would  remain  unaltered  and  un- 
changed till  time  should  be  no  longer.  I  remarked,  that  I 
would  take  another  small  stone  and  lay  it  on  the  great  one 
which  could  never  act,  and  now  we  say  the  great  rock  up- 
holds, sustains  or  supports  the  small  one — all  active  transi- 
tive verbs  with  an  object  expressed. 

She  replied,  she  would  give  it  up,  for  it  had  satisfied  her 
of  a  new  principle  which  must  be  observed  in  the  exposition 
of  all  language,  which  accords  with  facts  as  developed  in 
physical  and  mental  science. 

I  continued,  not  only  does  that  rock  act  in  resisting  the 
force  of  the  small  one  which  lays  upon  it,  but,  by  the  at- 
traction of  gravitation  it  is  able  to  maintain  its  position  in 
the  side  of  the  mountain  ;  by  cohesion  it  retains  its  distinct 
identity  and  solidity,  and  repels  all  foreign  bodies.  It  is 
also  subject  to  the  laws  which  govern  the  earth  in  its  diur- 
nal and  annual  revolutions,  and  moves  in  common  with  oth- 
er matter  at  the  astonishing  rate  of  a  thousand  miles  in  an 
hour !  Who  shall  teach  children,  in  these  days  of  light 
and  improvement,  the  grovelling  doctrine  of  neutrality,  this 
relic  of  the  peripatetic  philosophy  ?  Will  parents  send  their 
children  to  school  to  learn  falsehood  ?  And  can  teachers 
be  satisfied  to  remain  in  ignorance,  following  with  blind 
reverence  the  books  they  have  studied,  and  refuse  to  ex- 
amine new  principles,  fearing  they  shall  be  compelled  to 


LIE.  AN  ANECDOTE. 


129 


acknowledge  former  errors  and  study  new  principles? 
They  should  remember  it  is  wiser  and  more  honorable  to 
confess  a  fault  and  correct  it,  than  it  is  to  remain  permanent 
in  error. 

Let  us  take  another  example  of  the  verb  "^o  Z«e."  A 
country  pedagogue  who  has  followed  his  authorities  most 
devotedly,  and  taught  his  pupils  that  lie  is  a  "  neuter  verb, 
expressing  neither  action  nor  passion,  but  simply  being,  or 
a  state  of  being,"  goes  out,  during  the  intermission,  into  a 
grove  near  by,  to  exercise  himself.  In  attempting  to  roll  a 
log  up  the  hill,  he  makes  a  mis-step,  and  falls  (intransitive 
verb,  nothing  falls  !)  to  the  ground,  and  the  log  rolls  {noth- 
ing) on  to  him,  and  lies  across  his  legs.  In  this  condition 
he  is  observed  by  his  scholars  to  whom  he  cries  (nothing) 
for  help.  "  Do  (nothing)  come  (intransitive)  and  help  me." 
They  obey  him  and  remain  neuter,  or  at  least  act  intrans- 
itively, and  produce  no  effects.  He  cries  again  for  help 
and  his  cries  are  regarded.  They  present  themselves  be- 
fore him.  "  Do  roll  this  log  off ;  it  will  break  my  legs." 
"  Oh  no,  master  ;  how  can  that  be  ?  The  log  lies  on  you, 
does  it  not  ?"  "  Yes,  and  it  will  press  me  to  death."  "  No, 
no  ;  that  can  never  be.  The  log  can  not  act.  Lies  is  a 
neuter  verb,  signifying  neither  action  nor  passion,  but  sim- 
ply  being  or  a  state  of  being.  You  have  a  state  of  being, 
and  the  log  has  a  state  of  being.  It  can  not  harm  you. 
You  must  have  forgotten  the  practical  application  of  the 
truths  you  have  been  teaching  us."  It  would  be  difficult 
to  explain  neuter  verbs  in  such  a  predicament. 

"  Now  1  lay  me  down  to  sleep." 

"  She  died  and  they  laid  her  beside  l:er  lover  under  the 
spreading  branches  of  the  willow." 


180 


ON  VERBS. 


Tlicy  laid  it  away  so  secure  that  they  could  never  find 

it." 

They  laid  down  to  rest  themselves  after  the  fatigue  of  a 
whole  day's  journey. 

We  have  now  considered  the  model  verbs  of  the  neuter 
kind,  with  the  exception  of  the  verb  to  be,  which  is  left  for 
a  distinct  consideration,  being  the  most  active  of  all  verbs. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  spend  much  time  on  this  point.  The 
errors  I  have  examined  have  all  been  discovered  by  teach- 
ers of  language,  long  ago,  but  few  have  ventured  to  correct 
them.  An  alleviation  of  the  difficulty  has  been  sought  m 
the  adoption  of  the  intransitive  verb,  which  "expresses  an  ac- 
tion that  is  confined  to  the  actor  or  agent." 

The  remarks  which  have  been  given  in  the  present  lec- 
ture will  serve  as  a  hint  to  the  course  w-e  shall  adopt  in 
treating  of  them,  but  the  more  particular  examination  of 
their  character  and  uses,  together  with  some  general  obser- 
vation on  the  agents  and  objects  of  verbs,  will  be  deferred 
to  our  next  lecture. 


LECTURE  IX. 


ON  VERBS. 

Neuter  and  intransitive. — Agents. — Objects. — No  actions  as  such 
can  be  known  distinct  from  the  agent. — Imaginary  actions. — 
Actions  known  by  their  effects. — Examples. — Signs  should  guide 
to  things  signified. — Principles  of  action. — Power. — Animals. — 
Vegetables. — Minerals. — All  things  act. — Magnetic  needle. — 
Cause. — Explained. — First  Cause. — Means. — Illustrated. — Sir  I. 
Newton's  example. — These  principles  must  be  known. — Relative 
action. — Anecdote  of  Gallileo. 

We  resume  the  consideration  of  verbs.  We  closed  our 
last  lecture  with  the  exanaination  of  7ieuter  verbs,  as  they 
have  been  called.  It  appears  to  us  that  evidence  strong 
enough  to  convince  the  most  skeptical  was  adduced  to  prove 
that  sit,  sleep,  stand  and  lie,  stand  in  the  same  relation  to 
language  as  other  verbs,  that  they  do  not,  in  any  case,  ex- 
press neutrality,  but  frequently  admit  an  objective  word  af- 
ter them.  These  are  regarded  as  the  most  neutral  of  all 
the  verbs  except  to  be,  which,  by  the  way,  expresses  the 
highest  degree  of  action,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to 
inquire  into  its  meaning. 

Grammarians  have  long  ago  discovered  the  falsity  of  the 
books  in  the  use  of  a  large  portion  of  verbs  which  have 
been  called  neuter.  To  obviate  the  difficulty,  some  of  them 
have  adopted  the  distinction  of  Intransitive  verbs,  which  ex- 
press action,  but  terminate  on  no  object ;  others  still  use  the 
term  neuter,  but  teach  their  scholars  that  when  the  object  is 


132 


ON  VERBS. 


expressed,  it  is  active.  This  distinction  has  only  tended  to 
perplex  learners,  while  it  afforded  only  a  temporary  expe- 
dient  to  teachers,  by  which  to  dodge  the  question  at  issue. 
So  far  as  the  action  is  concerned,  which  it  is  the  business  of 
the  verb  to  express,  what  is  the  difference  whether  "  I  run, 
or  run  myself?"  "  A  man  started  in  haste.  He  ran  so  fast 
that  he  ran  himself  to  death."  I  strike  Thomas,  Thomas 
strikes  David,  Thomas  strikes  himself.  Where  is  the  dif- 
ference in  the  action  ?  What  matters  it  whether  the  action 
passes  over  to  another  object,  or  is  confined  within  itself? 

"  But,"  says  the  objector,  "  you  mistake.  An  intransitive 
verb  is  one  where  the  *  effect  is  confined  within  the  subject, 
and  does  not  pass  over  to  any  object.'  " 

Very  well,  I  think  I  understand  the  objection.  When 
Thomas  strikes  David  the  effects  of  the  blow  passes  over  to 
him.  And  when  he  strikes  himself,  it  "is  confined  within 
the  subject,"  and  hence  the  latter  is  an  intransitive  verb. 

"  No,  no  ;  there  is  an  object  on  which  the  action  termi- 
nates, in  that  case,  and  so  we  must  call  it  ^.transitive  verb." 

Will  you  give  me  an  example  of  an  intransitive  verb  ? 

"  I  run,  he  icalks,  birds  jiy,  it  rains,  the  fire  hums.  No 
objects  are  expressed  after  these  words,  so  the  action  is 
confined  within  themselves." 

I  now  get  your  meaning.  When  the  object  is  expressed 
the  verb  is  transitive,  when  it  is  not  it  is  intransitive.  This 
distinction  is  generally  observed  in  teaching,  however  wide- 
ly it  may  differ  from  the  intention  of  the  makers  of  gram- 
mars. And  hence  children  acquire  the  habit  of  limiting 
their  inquiries  to  what  they  see  placed  before  them  by  oth- 
ers, and  do  not  think  for  themselves.  When  the  verb  has 
an  objective  word  after  it  expressed,  they  are  taught  to  at- 
tach action  to  it ;  but  tho  the  action  may  be  even  greater, 


ACTIONS  CONNECTED  WITH  AGENTS. 


133 


if  the  object  is  not  expressed,  they  consider  the  action  as 
widely  different  in  its  character,  and  adopt  the  false  philos- 
ophy that  a  cause  can  exist  without  an  effect  resulting 
from  it. 

We  assume  this  ground,  and  we  shall  labor  to  maintain 
it,  that  every  verb  necessarily  presupposes  an  agent  or  act- 
or,  an  action^  and  an  object  acted  upon,  or  affected  by  the 
action. 

No  action,  as  such,  can  be  known  to  exist  separate  from 
the  thing  that  acts.  We  can  conceive  no  idea  of  action, 
only  by  keeping  our  minds  fixed  on  the  acting  substance, 
marking  its  changes,  movements,  and  tendencies.  "  The 
book  moves.^'  In  this  case  the  eye  rests  on  the  book,  and 
observes  its  positions  and  attitudes,  alternating  one  way  and 
the  other.  You  can  separate  no  action  from  the  book,  nor 
conceive  any  idea  of  it,  as  a  separate  entity.  Let  the 
book  be  taken  away.  Where  now  is  the  action  ?  What 
can  you  think  or  say  of  it  ?  There  is  the  same  space  just 
now  occupied  by  the  book,  but  no  action  is  perceivable. 

The  boy  rolls  his  marble  upon  the  floor.  All  his  ideas 
of  the  action  performed  by  it  are  derived  from  an  observa- 
tion of  the  marble.  His  eye  follows  it  as  it  moves  along 
the  floor.  He  sees  it  in  that  acting  condition.  When  he 
speaks  of  the  action  as  a  whole,  he  thinks  where  it  started 
and  where  it  stopped.  It  is  of  no  importance,  so  far  as  the 
verb  is  concerned,  whether  the  marble  received  an  impulse 
from  his  hand,  or  whether  the  floor  was  sufiiciently  inclined 
to  allow  it  to  roll  by  its  own  inherent  tendency.  The  ac- 
tion is,  in  this  case,  the  obvious  change  of  the  marble. 

Our  whole  knowledge  of  action  depends  on  an  observ- 
ance  of  things  in  a  state  of  motion,  or  change,  or  exerting  a 
tendency  to  change,  or  to  counteract  an  opposing  substance. 

L 


134 


ON  VERBS. 


This  will  be  admitted  so  far  as  material  things  are  con- 
cerned.  The  same  principle  holds  good  in  reference  to  ev- 
ery thing  of  which  we  form  ideas,  or  concerning  which  we 
use  language.  In  our  definition  of  nouns  we  spoke  of  im- 
material and  imaginary  things  to  which  we  gave  names  and 
which  we  consider  as  agencies  capable  of  exerting  an  influ- 
ence  in  the  production  of  effects,  or  in  resisting  actions.  It 
is  therefore  unimportant  whether  the  action  be  real  or  im- 
aginary. It  is  still  inseparably  connected  with  the  thing 
that  acts  ;  and  we  employ  it  thus  in  the  construction  of  lan- 
guage to  express  our  thoughts.  Thus,  lions  roar ;  birds 
sing  ;  minds  reflect ;  fairies  dance  ;  knowledge  increases  ; 
fancies  err  ;  imagination  wanders. 

This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  all  our  attempts  to 
understand  or  explain  language.  The  mind  should  remain 
fixed  to  the  acting  substance,  to  observe  its  changes  and 
relations  at  different  periods,  and  in  different  circumstances. 
There  is  no  other  process  by  which  any  knowledge  can  be 
gained  of  actions.  The  mind  contemplates  the  acting  thing 
in  a  condition  of  change  and  determines  the  precise  action 
by  the  altered  condiiion  of  the  thing,  and  thus  learns  to 
judge  of  actions  by  their  effects.  The  only  method  b\* 
which  we  can  know  whether  a  vegetahle  grows  or  not  is  by 
comparing  its  form  to-day  with  what  it  was  some  days  ago. 
We  can  not  decide  on  the  improvement  of  our  children  only 
by  observing  the  same  rule. 

"  By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them,"  will  apply  in 
physics  as  well  as  in  morals  ;  for  we  judge  of  causes  only 
by  their  effects.  First  principles  can  never  be  known. 
We  observe  things  as  they  are,  and  remember  how  they 
have  been;  and  from  hence  deduce  our  conclusions  in  ref- 
erence to  the  catise  of  things  we  do  not  fully  understand,  or 


ACTIONS  KNOWN  BY  THEIR  EFFECTS. 


135 


those  consequences  which  will  follow  a  condition  of  things 
as  now  existing.  It  is  the  business  of  philosophy  to  nnark 
these  effects,  and  trace  them  back  to  the  causes  which  pro- 
duced them,  by  observing  all  the  intermediate  changes, 
forms,  attitudes,  and  conditions,  in  which  such  things  have, 
at  different  times,  been  placed. 

We  say,     trees  grow.^^    But  suppose  no  change  had 
ever  been  observed  in  trees,  that  they  had  always  been  as 
they  now  are ;  in  stature  as  lofty,  in  foliage  as  green  and 
beautiful,  in  location  unaltered.     Who  would  then  say, 
trees  grow  ?" 

In  this  single  expression  a  whole  train  of  facts  are  taken 
into  the  account,  tho  not  particularly  marked.  As  a  single 
expression  we  imply  that  trees  increase  their  stature.  But 
this  we  all  know  could  never  be  effected  without  the  influ- 
ence of  other  causes.  The  soil  where  it  stands  must  con- 
taia  properties  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  tree.  A  due 
portion  of  moisture  and  heat  are  also  requisite.  These  facts 
all  exist,  and  are  indispensable  to  make  good  the  expression 
that  the  "tree  grows."  We  might  also  trace  the  capabili- 
ties of  the  tree  itself,  its  roots,  bark,  veins  or  pores,  fibres  or 
grains,  its  succulent  and  absorbent  powers.  But,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  "  man  that  killed  the  deer,"  noticed  in  a  former 
lecture,  the  mind  here  conceives  a  single  idea  of  a  complete 
whole,  which  is  signified  by  the  single  expression,  "  trees 
grow." 

Let  the  tbllowing  example  serve  in  further  illustration  of 
this  point.  Take  two  bricks,  the  one  heated  to  a  high  tem- 
perature, the  other  cold.  Put  them  together,  and  in  a  short 
time  you  will  find  them  of  equal  temperature.  One  has 
grown  warm,  the  other  cool.  One  has  imparted  heat  and 
received  cold,  the  other  has  received  heat  and  imparted  cold. 


136 


ON  VERBS. 


Yet  all  this  would  remain  forever  unknown,  but  for  the  ef- 
fects which  must  appear  obvious  to  all.  From  these  effects 
the  causes  are  to  be  learned. 

It  must,  I  think,  appear  plain  to  all  who  are  willing  to 
see,  that  action,  as  such,  can  never  exist  distinct  from  the 
thing  that  acts ;  that  all  our  notions  of  action  are  derived 
from  an  observance  of  things  in  an  acting  condition  ;  and 
hence  that  no  words  can  be  framed  to  express  our  ideas  of 
action  on  any  other  principle. 

I  hope  you  will  bear  these  principles  in  mind.  They  arc 
vastly  important  in  the  construction  of  language,  as  will 
appear  when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  agents  and  objects  of 
action.  We  still  adhere  to  the  fact,  that  no  rules  of  Ian- 
guage  can  be  successfully  employed,  which  deviate  fn  m 
the  permanent  laws  which  operate  in  the  regulation  of  niat- 
ter  and  mind  ;  a  fact  which  can  not  be  too  deeply  irapresse^l 
on  your  minds. 

In  the  consideration  of  actions  as  expressed  by  verbs, 
we  must  observe  that  power,  cause,  means,  agency,  and 
effects,  are  indispensable  to  their  existence.  Such  princi- 
ples exist  in  fact,  and  must  be  observed  in  obtaining  a  com- 
plete  knowledge  of  language ;  for  words,  we  have  already 
seen,  are  the  expression  of  ideas,  and  ideas  are  the  impres- 
sion  of  things. 

In  our  attempts  at  improvement,  we  should  strip  away 
the  covering,  and  come  at  the  reality.  Words  should  be 
measurably  forgotten,  while  we  search  diligently  for  the 
things  expressed  by  them.  Signs  should  always  conduct 
to  the  things  signified.  The  weary  traveller,  hungry  and 
faint,  would  hardly  satisfy  himself  with  an  examination  of 
the  sign  before  the  inn,  marking  its  form,  the  picture  upon 


PRINCIPLES  OF  ACTION. 


137 


it,  the  nice  shades  of  coloring  in  the  painting.  He  would 
go  in,  and  search  for  the  thing  signified. 

It  has  been  the  fault  in  teaching  language,  that  learners 
have  been  limited  to  the  mere  forms  of  words,  while  the 
important  duty  of  teaching  them  to  look  at  the  thing  signi- 
fied, has  been  entirely  disregarded.  Hence  they  have  only 
obtained  book  knowledge.  They  know  what  the  grammars 
say ;  but  how  to  apply  what  they  say,  or  what  is  in  reality 
meant  by  it,  they  have  yet  to  learn.  This  explains  the 
reason  why  almost  every  man  who  has  studied  grammar 
will  t€ll  you  that  "he  used  to  understand  it,  but  it  has  all 
gone  from  him,  for  he  has  not  looked  into  a  hook  these  many 
years."  Has  he  lost  a  knowledge  of  language?  Oh,  no, 
he  learned  that  before  he  saw  a  grammar,  and  will  preserve 
it  to  the  day  of  his  death.  What  good  did  his  two  or  three 
years  study  of  grammar  do  him  ?  None  at  all ;  he  has 
forgotten  all  that  he  ever  knew  of  it,  and  that  is  not  much, 
for  he  only  learned  what  some  author  said,  and  a  few  arbi- 
trary rules  and  technical  expressions  which  he  could  never 
understand  nor  apply  in  practice,  except  in  special  cases. 
But  I  wander.  I  throw  in  this  remark  to  show  you  the 
necessity  of  bringing  your  minds  to  a  close  observance  of 
things  as  they  do  in  truth  exist ;  and  from  them  you  can 
draw  the  principles  of  speech,  and  be  able  to  use  language 
correctly.  For  we  still  insist  on  our  former  opinion,  that 
all  language  depends  on  the  permanent  laws  of  nature,  as 
exerted  in  the  regulation  of  matter  and  mind. 

To  return.  I  have  said  that  all  action  denotes  power, 
cause,  means,  agency,  and  effects. 

Power  depends  on  physical  energy,  or  mental  skill,  I 
have  hinted  at  this  fact  before.    Things  act  according  to 


138 


ON  VERBS. 


the  power  or  energy  they  possess.  Animals  walk,  birds 
fly,  fishes  swim,  minerals  sink,  poisons  kill.  Or,  according 
to  the  adopted  theories  of  naturalists  : 

Minerals  grow. 

Vegetables  grow  and  live. 

Animals  grow,  and  live,  and /ee/. 

Every  thing  acts  according  to  the  ability  it  possesses. 
Man,  possessed  of  reason,  devises  means  and  produces  ends. 
Beasts  change  locations,  devour  vegetables,  and  sometimes 
other  beasts.    The  lowest  grade  of  animals  never  change 
location,  but  yet  eat  and  live.    Vegetables  live  and  grow, 
but  do  not  change  location.    They  have  the  power  to  re- 
produce their  species,  and  some  of  them  to  kill  off  surround- 
ing objects.    "  The  carraguata  of  the  West  Indies,  clings 
round,"  says  Goldsmith,  "  whatever  tree  it  happens  to  ap- 
proach ;  there  it  quickly  gains  the  ascendant,  and,  loading 
the  tree  with  a  verdure  not  its  own,  keeps  away  that  nour- 
ishment designed  to  feed  the  trunk,  and  at  last  entirely  de- 
stroys its  supporter."    In  our  country,  many  gardens  and 
fields  present  convincing  proof  of  the  ability  of  weeds  to 
kill  out  the  vegetables  designed  to  grow  therein.    You  all 
have  heard  of  the  Upas,  which  has  a  power  sufficient  to 
destroy  the  lives  of  animals  and  vegetables  for  a  large  dis- 
tance around.    Its  very  exhalations  are  death  to  whatever 
approaches  it.    It  serves  in  metaphor  to  illustrate  the  nox- 
ious  effects  of  all  vice,  of  slander  and  deceit,  the  effects  of 
which  are  to  the  moral  constitution,  what  the  tree  itself  is 
to  natural  objects,  blight  and  mildew  upon  whatever  comes 
within  its  reach. 

Minerals  are  possessed  of  power  no  less  astonishing,  which 
may  be  observed  whenever  an  opportunity  is  offered  to  call 
it  forth.    Active  poisons,  able  to  slay  the  most  powerful 


PRINCIPLES  OF  ACTION.  POWER.  139 

men  and  beasts,  lie  hid  within  their  bosoms.  They  have 
strong  attractive  and  repelling  powers.  From  the  iron  is 
made  the  strong  cable  which  holds  the  vessel  fast  in  her 
moorings,  enabling  it  to  outride  the  collected  force  of  the 
winds  and  waves  which  threaten  its  destruction.  From  it 
also  are  manufactured  the  manacles  which  bind  the  strong 
man,  or  fasten  the  lion  in  his  cage.  Gold  possesses  a  pow- 
er  which  charms  nearly  all  men  to  sacrifice  their  ease,  and 
too  many  their  moral  principles,  to  pay  their  blind  devotions 
at  its  shrine. 

Who  will  contend  that  the  power  of  action  is  confined  to 
the  animal  creation  alone,  and  that  inanimate  matter  can 
not  act  ?  That  there  is  a  superior  power  possessed  by  man, 
endowed  with  an  immaterial  spirit  in  a  corporeal  body,  none 
will  deny.  By  the  agency  of  the  mind  he  can  accomplish 
wonders,  which  mere  physical  power  without  the  aid  of 
such  mental  skill,  could  never  perform.  But  with  all  his 
boasted  superiority,  he  is  often  made  the  slave  of  inanimate 
things.  His  lofty  powers  of  body  and  soul  bend  beneath 
the  weight  of  accumulated  sorrows,  produced  by  the  secret 
operations  of  contagious  disease,  which  slays  his  wife,  chil- 
dren,  and  friends,  who  fall  like  the  ripened  harvest  before 
the  gatherers  scythe.  Nay,  he  often  submits  to  the  con- 
trolling power  of  the  vine,  alcohol,  or  tobacco,  which  gain 
a  secret  influence  over  his  nobler  powers,  and  Jix  on  him 
the  stamp  of  disgrace,  and  throw  around  him  fetters  from 
which  he  finds  it  no  easy  matter  to  extricate  himself.  By 
the  illusions  of  error  and  vice  he  is  often  betrayed,  and  long 
endures  darkness  and  suffering,  till  he  regains  his  native 
energies,  and  finds  deliverance  in  the  enjoyment  of  truth 
and  virtue. 


140 


ON  VERBS. 


What  is  that  secret  power  which  hes  concealed  beyond 
the  reach  of  human  ken,  and  is  transported  from  land  to 
land  unknown,  till  exposed  in  conditions  suited  to  its  opera- 
tion, will  show  its  active  and  resistless  force  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  life,  and  the  devastation  of  whole  cities  or  nations  ? 
You  may  call  it  plague,  or  cholera,  or  small  pox,  miasma, 
contagion,  particles  of  matter  floating  in  the  air  surcharged 
with  disease,  or  any  thing  else.  It  matters  not  what  you 
call  it.  It  is  sufficient  to  our  present  purpose  to  know  that 
it  has  the  ability  to  put  forth  a  prodigious  power  in  the  pro- 
duction of  consequences,  which  the  highest  skill  of  man  is 
yet  unable  to  prevent. 

I  might  pursue  this  point  to  an  indefinite  length,  and  trace 
the  secret  powers  possessed  by  all  created  things,  as  exhib- 
ited in  the  influence  they  exert  in  various  ways,  both  as 
regards  themselves  and  surrounding  objects.  But  you  will 
at  once  perceive  my  object,  and  the  truth  of  the  positions 
I  assume.  A  common  power  pervades  all  creation,  operat- 
ing by  pure  and  perfect  laws,  regulated  by  the  Great  First 
Cause,  the  Moving  Principle,  which  guides,  governs,  and 
controls  the  whole.* 

*  We  do  not  assent  to  the  notions  of  ancient  philosophers  and 
poets,  who  believed  the  doctrine  that  the  world  is  animated  by  a 
soul,  like  the  human  body,  which  is  the  spirit  of  Deity  himself ;  but 
that  by  the  operation  of  wise  and  perfect  laws,  he  exerts  a  supervi- 
sion in  the  creation  and  preservation  of  all  things  animate  and  in- 
animate. Virgil  stated  the  opinions  of  his  times,  in  his  iEoeid, 
B.  VI.  1.  724. 

"  Principio  coelum,  ac  terras,  camposque  liquentes, 
Lucentemque  globum,  Lunte,  Titaniaque  astra 
Spiritus  intus  alit,  totamque  infusa  per  artus 
Mens  agitat  molem,  et  magno  se  corpore  miscet." 

Know,  first,  that  heaven,  and  earth's  compacted  frame, 
And  flowing  waters,  and  the  starry  flame. 


I 


POWER.  MAGNETIC  NEEDLE.  141 

Degrading  indeed  must  be  those  sentinnents  which  linnit 
all  action  to  the  animal  frame  as  an  organized  body,  moved 
by  a  living  principle.  Ours  is  a  sublimer  duty  ;  to  trace 
the  operations  of  the  Divine  Wisdom  which  acts  thro  out  all 
creation,  in  the  minutest  particle  of  dust  which  keeps  its 
position  secure,  till  moved  by  some  superior  power  ;  or  in 
the  needle  which  points  with  unerring  skill  to  its  fixed  point, 
and  guides  the  vessel,  freighted  with  a  hundred  lives,  safe 
thro  the  midnight  storm,  to  its  destined  haven  ;  tho  rocked 
by  the  waves  and  driven  by  the  winds,  it  remains  uninflu- 
enced, and  tremblingly  alive  to  the  important  duties  en- 
trusted to  its  charge,  continues  its  faithful  service,  and  is 
watched  with  the  most  implicit  confidence  by  all  on  board, 
as  the  only  guide  to  safety.  The  same  Wisdom  is  dis- 
played thro  out  all  creation  ;  in  the  beauty,  order,  and  har- 
mony of  the  universe  ;  in  the  planets  which  float  in  the 
azure  vault  of  heaven  ;  in  the  glow  worm  that  glitters  in 
the  dust :  in  the  fish  which  cuts  the  liquid  element ;  in  the 

And  both  the  radiant  lights,  one  common  soul 
Inspires  and  feeds — and  animates  the  whole. 
This  active  mind,  infused  thro  all  the  space, 
Unites  and  mingles  with  the  mighty  mass." 

Dryden,  b.  vi.  1.  980. 

This  sentiment,  he  probably  borrowed  from  Pythagoras  and  Plato, 
who  argue  the  same  sentiment,  and  divide  this  spirit  into  "  intellec 
tus,  intelligentia,  etnatura" — intellectual,  intelligent,  and  natural. 
Whence,  "  Ex  hoc  Deo,  qui  est  mundianima  :  quasi  decerptcB  par. 
ticul(B  su7it  vitcB  hominum  et  pecudumy  Or,  "  Omnia  animalia  ex 
quatuor  clementis  et  divino  spiritu  constare  manifestum  est.  Tra- 
hunt  enim  a  terra  carnem,  ab  aqua  humorem,  ab  sere  anhelitum,  ab 
igne  fervorem,  a  divino  spiritu  ingenium." — Timeus,  chap.  24,  and 
VirgiVs  Geor.  h.  4,  I.  220,  Dryden's  trans.  I.  322. 

Pope  alludes  to  the  same  opinion  in  these  lines  : 

"  All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole, 
Whose  body  nature  is,  and  God  the  soul." 


142 


ON  VERBS. 


pearl  which  sparkles  in  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  ;  in  everv 
thing  that  Hves,  moves,  or  has  a  being ;  but' more  distinctly 
in  man,  created  in  the  moral  image  of  his  Maker,  possessed 
of  a  heart  to  feel,  and  a  mind  to  understand — the  third  in 
the  rank  of  intelligent  beings. 

I  cannot  refuse  to  favor  you  with  a  quotation  from  that 
inimitable  poem,  Pope's  Essay  on  Man.  It  is  rife  with  sen- 
timent  of  the  purest  and  most  exalted  character.  It  is  di- 
rect to  our  purpose.  You  may  have  heard  it  a  thousand 
times  ;  but  I  am  confident  you  will  be  pleased  to  hear  it 
again. 

Ask  for  what  end  the  heavenly  bodies  shine, 
Earth  for  whose  use  ?  Pride  answers,  "  'Tis  for  mine  : 
"  For  me  kind  natm-e  wakes  her  genial  pow'r, 
"  Suckles  each  herb,  and  spreads  out  every  flow'r  ; 
'*  Annual  for  me,  the  grape,  the  rose  renew 
"  The  juice  neclareous,  and  the  balmy  dew ; 
"  For  me,  the  mine  a  thousand  treasures  brings; 
"  For  me  health  gushes  from  a  thousand  springs ; 
"  Seas  roll  to  waft  me,  suns  to  light  me  rise ; 
"  My  footstool  earth,  my  canopy  the  skies." 

But  errs  not  nature  from  this  gracious  end, 
From  burning  suns  when  livid  deaths  descend. 
When  earthquakes  swallow,  or  when  tempests  sweep 
Towns  to  one  grave,  wliole  nations  to  the  deep  ? 
"  No,"  ('tis  replied,)  "  the  first  Almighty  Cause 
Acts  not  by  partial,  hut  by  general  laws ; 
Th*  exceptions  few  ;  some  change  since  all  began  : 
And  what  created  perfect  ?"  Why  then  man  ? 
If  the  great  end  be  human  happiness, 
Then  nature  deviates — and  can  man  do  less  ? 
As  much  that  end  a  constant  course  requires 
Of  show'rs  and  sunshine,  as  of  man's  desires  ; 
As  much  eternal  springs  and  cloudless  skies, 


AN  EXTRACT. 


143 


As  man  forever  temp'rate,  calm,  and  wise. 

If  plagues  or  earthquakes  break  not  heaven's  design, 

Why  then  a  Borgia,  or  a  Catalinc  ? 

Who  knows  but  He  whose  hand  the  lightning  forms, 

Who  heaves  old  ocean,  and  who  wings  the  storms  ; 

Pours  fierce  ambition  in  a  Caesar's  mind ; 

Or  turns  young  Ammon  loose  to  scourge  mankind  ? 

From  pride,  from  pride  our  very  reas'ning  springs  ; 

Account  for  moral  as  for  nat'ral  things  : 

Why  charge  we  heaven  in  those,  in  these  acquit  ? 

In  both,  to  reason  right,  is  to  submit. 

Better  for  us,  perhaps,  it  might  appear, 
Were  there  all  harmony,  all  virtue  here  ; 
That  never  air  or  ocean  felt  the  wind  ; 
That  never  passion  discomposed  the  mind. 
But  ALL  subsists  by  elemental  strife  ; 
And  passions  are  the  elements  of  life. 
The  general  order,  since  the  whole  began, 
Is  kept  in  nature,  and  is  kept  in  man. 

***** 
Look  round  our  world,  behold  the  chain  of  love, 
Combining  all  below  and  all  above  ; 
See  plastic  nature  working  to  this  end. 
The  single  atoms  each  to  other  tend  ; 
Attract,  attracted  to,  the  next  in  place 
Formed  and  impelled  its  neighbor  to  embrace, 
See  matter  next,  with  various  life  endued, 
Press  to  one  center  still  the  gen'ral  good. 
See  dying  vegetables  life  sustain, 
See  life  dissolving,  vegetate  again  ; 
All  forms  that  perish,  other  forms  supply, 
(By  turns  we  catch  the  vital  breath,  and  die) 
Like  bubbles  on  the  sea  of  matter  borne, 
They  rise,  they  break,  and  to  that  sea  return, 
Nothing  is  foreign — parts  relate  to  whole  ; 
One  all-extending,  all-preservmg  soul 


144 


ON  VERBS. 


Connects  each  being  greatest  with  the  least ; 
Made  beast  in  aid  of  man,  and  man  of  beast ; 
All  served,  all  serving  ;  nothing  stands  alone  ; 
The  chain  holds  on,  and  where  it  ends,  unknown. 

But  power  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  action. 
There  must  be  a  cause  to  call  it  forth,  to  set  in  operation 
and  exhibit  its  latent  energies.  It  will  remain  hid  in  its 
secret  chambers  till  efficient  causes  have  set  in  operation 
the  means  by  which  its  existence  is  to  be  discovered  in  the 
production  of  change,  effects,  or  results.  There  is,  it  is 
said,  in  every  created  thing  a  power  sufficient  to  produce 
its  own  destruction,  as  well  as  to  preserve  its  being.  In 
the  human  body,  for  instance,  there  is  a  constant  tendency 
to  decay,  to  waste  ;  which  a  counteracting  power  resists, 
and,  with  proper  assistance,  keeps  alive. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  vegetables  which  are  constant- 
ly throwing  off,  or  exhaling  the  waste,  offensive,  or  useless 
matter,  and  yet  a  restoring  power,  assisted  by  heat,  moist- 
ure, and  the  nourishment  of  the  earth,  resists  the  tendency 
to  decay  and  preserves  it  alive  and  growing.  The  air,  the 
earth,  nay,  the  ocean  itself,  philosophers  assure  us,  contain 
powers  sufficient  to  self-destruction.  But  I  will  not  enlarge 
here.  Let  the  necessary  cause  be  exerted  which  will  give 
vent  to  this  hidden  power  and  actions  the  most  astonishing 
and  destructive  would  be  the  effect.  These  are  often  wit- 
nessed in  the  tremendous  earthquakes  which  devastate 
whole  cities,  states,  and  empires ;  in  the  tornados  which 
pass,  like  the  genius  of  evil,  over  the  land,  levelling  what- 
ever is  found  in  its  course ;  or  in  the  waterspouts  and  raael- 
stroms  which  prove  the  grave  of  all  that  comes  within  their 
grasp. 


CAUSE  OF  ACTION. 


145 


In  the  attempted  destruction  of  the  royal  family  and  par- 
liament of  England,  by  what  is  usually  called  the  "  gunpow- 
der plot,"  the  arrangements  were  all  made  ;  two  hogsheads 
and  thirty-six  barrels  of  powder,  sufficient  to  blow  up  the 
house  of  lords  and  the  surrounding  buildings,  were  secreted 
in  a  vault  beneath  it,  strown  over  with  faggots.  Guy 
Fawkes,  a  Spanish  officer,  employed  for  the  purpose,  lay  at 
the  door,  on  the  5th  of  November,  1605,  with  the  matches, 
or  means,  in  his  pocket,  which  should  set  in  operation  the 
prodigious  dormant  power,  which  would  hurl  to  destruction 
James  I.,  the  royal  family,  and  the  protestant  parliament, 
give  the  ascendancy  to  the  Catholics,  and  change  the  whole 
political  condition  of  the  nation.  The  project  was  discovered, 
the  means  were  removed,  the  cause  taken  away,  and  the 
threatened  effects  were  prevented. 

The  CAUSE  of  action  is  the  immediate  subject  which  pre- 
cedes or  tends  to  produce  the  action,  without  which  it  would 
not  take  place.  It  may  result  from  volition,  inherent  ten- 
dency, or  communicated  impulse  ;  and  is  known  to  exist 
from  the  effects  produced  by  it,  in  the  altered  or  new  con- 
dition of  the  thing  on  which  it  operates  ;  which  change 
would  not  have  been  effi3cted  without  it. 

Causes  are  to  be  sought  for  by  tracing  back  thro  the  ef- 
fects which  are  produced  by  them.  The  factory  is  put  in 
operation,  and  the  cloth  is  manufactured.  The  careless  ob- 
server  would  enter  the  building  and  see  the  spindles,  looms, 
and  wheels  operated  by  the  hands,  and  go  away  satisfied 
that  he  has  seen  enough,  seen  all.  But  the  more  careful 
will  look  farther.  He  will  trace  each  band  and  wheel,  each 
cog  and  shaft,  down  by  the  balance  power,  to  the  water 
race  and  floom  ;  or  thro  the  complicated  machinery  of  the 
steam  engine  to  the  piston,  condenser,  water,  wood,  and  fire  ; 

M 


146 


ON  VERBS. 


marking  a  new,  more  secret,  and  yet  more  efficient  cause  at 
each  advancing  step.  But  all  this  curiously  wrought  ma- 
chinery  is  not  the  product  of  chance,  operated  without  care. 
A  superior  cause  must  be  sought  in  human  skill,  in  the  deep 
and  active  ingenuity  of  man.  Every  contrivance  presup- 
poses a  contriver.  Hence  there  must  have  been  a  power 
and  means  sufficient  to  combine  and  regulate  the  power  of 
the  water,  or  generate  and  direct  the  steam.  That  power 
is  vested  in  man ;  and  hence,  man  stands  as  the  cause,  in 
relation  to  the  whole  process  operated  by  wheels,  bands, 
spindles,  and  looms.  Yet  we  may  say,  with  propriety,  that 
the  water,  or  the  steam  ;  the  water-wheel,  or  the  piston  j 
the  shafts,  bands,  cogs,  pullies,  spindles,  springs, treddles, har- 
nesses, reeds,  shuttles,  an  almost  endless  concatenation  of  in- 
struments, are  alike  the  causes^  which  tend  to  produce  the 
final  result  ;  for  let  one  of  these  intermediate  causes  be  re- 
moved, and  the  whole  power  will  be  diverted,  and  all  will 
go  wrong — the  effect  will  not  be  produced. 

There  must  be  a  first  cause  to  set  in  operation  all  infe- 
rior ones  in  the  production  of  action  ;  and  to  that  first  cause 
all  action,  nay,  the  existence  of  all  other  causes,  may  be 
traced,  directly,  or  more  distant.  The  intervening  causes,  in 
the  consecutive  order  of  things,  may  be  as  diversified  as  the 
links  in  the  chain  of  variant  beings.  Yet  all  these  causes 
are  moved  by  the  all-sufficient  and  ever  present  agency  of 
the  Almighty  Father,  the  Uncaused  Cause  of  all  things 
and  beings ;  who  spoke  into  existence  the  universe  with  all 
its  various  and  complicated  parts  and  orders  ;  who  set  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  in  the  firmament,  gave  the  earth  a 
place,  and  fixed  the  sea  a  bed  ;  throwing  around  them  bar- 
riers over  which  they  can  never  pass.  From  the  height  of 
his  eternal  throne,  his  eye  pervades  all  his  works ;  from  the 


MEANS.  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


147 


tall  archangel,  that  "  adores  and  burns,"  down  to  the  very 
hairs  of  our  heads,  which  are  all  nunnbered,  his  wise,  benev- 
olent, and  powerful  supervision  nnay  be  traced  in  legible 
lines,  which  may  be  seen  and  read  of  all  men.  And  from 
effects,  the  most  diminutive  in  character,  may  be  traced  back, 
from  cause  to  cause,  upward  in  the  ascending  scale  of  be- 
ing, to  the  same  unrivalled  Source  of  all  power,  splendor, 
and  perfection,  the  presence  of  Him,  who  spake,  and  it  was 
done  ;  who  commanded,  and  it  stood  still ;  or,  as  the  poet 
lias  it : 

"  Look  thro  nature  up  to  nature's  God." 

The  means  of  action  are  those  aids  which  are  displayed 
as  the  medium  thro  which  existing  causes  are  to  exhibit 
their  hidden  powers  in  producing  changes  or  effects.  The 
muLohes  in  the  pocket  of  Guy  Fawks  were  the  direct  means 
by  which  he  intended  to  set  in  operation  a  train  of  causes 
which  should  terminate  in  the  destruction  of  the  house  of 
lorJs  and  all  its  inmates.  Those  matches,  set  on  fire,  would 
convey  a  spark  to  the  faggots,  and  thence  to  the  powder, 
jmd  means  after  means,  and  cause  after  cause,  in  the  rapid 
succession  of  events,  would  ensue,  tending  to  a  final,  inevi- 
table, and  melancholy  result. 

A  ball  shot  from  a  cannon,  receives  its  first  impulse  from 
the  powder ;  but  it  is  borne  thro  the  air  by  ttie  aid  of  a  prin- 
ciple inherent  in  itself,  which  power  is  finally  overcome  by 
the  density  of  the  atmosphere  which  impedes  its  progress, 
and  the  law  of  gravitation  finally  attracts  it  to  the  earth. 
These  contending  principles  may  be  known  by  observing  the 
curved  line  in  which  the  ball  moves  from  the  cannon's  mouth 
to  the  spot  where  it  rests.    But  if  there  is  no  power  in  the 


148 


ON  VERBS- 


ball,  why  does  not  the  ball  of  cork  discharged  froin  the  same 
gun  with  the  sanie  momentum,  travel  to  the  same  distance,, 
at  the  same  rate  ?  The  action  commences  in  both  cases 
with  the  same  projectile  force,  the  same  exterior  7neans  are 
employed,  but  the  results  arc  widely  difTerent.  The  cause 
of  this  dilTerence  must  be  sought  for  in  the  comparative 
power  of  each  substance  to  caiithiue  it^  oicn  movements. 

Every  boy  who  has  played  at  ball  has  observed  these 
principles.  He  throws  his  ball,  which,  if  not  eoujiteracted^ 
will  continue  in  a  straight  line,  ad  infinitum — without  end. 
But  the  air  impedes  its  progress,  and  gravitation  brings  it  to 
the  ground.  "When  he  throws  it  against  a  hard  substance,  its 
velocity  is  not  only  overcome,  but  it  is  sent  back  with  great 
force.  But  if  he  takes  a  ball  of  wax.  of  snow,  or  any  strong^ 
adhesive  substance,  it  will  not  bound.  How  shall  we  ac- 
count to  him  for  this  dilierence  ?  He  did  the  same  with  botlj 
balls.  The  impetus  given  the  one  was  as  great  as  the  othej-, 
and  the  resistance  of  the  intervening  substance  was  as  great 
in  one  case  as  the  other  ;  and  yet,  one  bounds  and  rebounds, 
while  the  other  sticks  last  as  a  Iriend,  to  the  first  object  it 
meets.  The  cause  of  this  dilference  is  to  be  sought  for  in 
tlie  ditferent  capabilities  of  the  respective  balls.  One  pos- 
sesses a  strong  elastic  and  repelling  power ;  in  the  other, 
the  attraction  of  cohesion  is  predominant. 

Taice  another  example.  Let  two  substances  of  equal 
size  and  torm,  the  one  made  of  lead,  tlie  other  of  cork,  be 
put  upon  the  surtace  of  a  cistern  of  water.  The  external 
circumstances  are  the  same,  but  the  effects  are  widely  dif- 
ferent—one sinks,  the  other  lloats.  We  must  look  for  the 
cause  of  this  difference,  not  in  the  opposite  qualities  of  sur- 
rounding matter,  but  in  the  things  themselves.  If  you  add 
to  the  cork  another  quality  possessed  by  the  lead,  and  give 


MEANS.  EXAMPLES. 


149 


It  the  same  form,  size,  and  weight,  it  will  as  readily  sink  to 
the  bottom.  But  this  last  property  is  possessed  in  differenl 
degrees  by  the  two  bodies,  and  hence,  while  the  one  floats 
upon  the  water,  the  other  displaces  its  particles  and  sinks  to 
the  bottom.  You  may  take  another  substance  ;  say  the 
mountain  ebony,  which  is  heavier  than  water,  but  lighter 
than  lead,  and  immerse  it  in  the  water  ;  it  will  not  sink  with 
the  rapidity  of  lead,  because  its  inherent  power  is  not  so 
strong. 

Take  still  another  case.  Let  two  balls,  suspended  on 
strings,  be  equally,  or,  to  use  the  technical  term,  positively 
electrified.  Bring  them  within  a  certain  distance,  and  they 
will  repel  each  other.  Let  the  electric  fluid  be  extracted 
from  one,  and  the  other  will  attract  it.  Before,  they  were 
as  enemies  ;  now  they  embrace  as  friends.  The  magnet 
furnishes  the  most  striking  proof  in  favor  of  the  theory  we 
are  laboring  to  establish.  Let  one  of  sufiicient  power  be 
let  down  within  the  proper  distance,  it  will  overcome  the 
power  of  gravitation,  and  attract  the  heavy  steel  to  itself. 
What  is  the  cause  of  this  wonderful  fact  ?  Who  can  account 
for  it  ?  Who  can  trace  out  the  hidden  cause  ;  the  primum 
mobile"  of  the  Ptolmaic  philosophy — the  secret  spring  of  mo- 
tion ?  But  who  will  dare  deny  that  such  effects  do  exist, 
and  that  they  are  produced  by  an  efficient  cause  ?  Or  who 
will  descend  into  the  still  more  dark  and  perplexing  mazes 
of  neuter  verb  grammars,  and  deny  that  matter  has  such  a 
power  to  act  1 

These  instances  will  suffice  to  show  you  what  we  mean 
when  we  say,  every  tfung  acts  according  to  the  aUUty  God 
has  given  it  to  act,  I  might  go  into  a  more  minute  exam- 
ination of  the  properties  of  matter,  affinity,  hardness,  weighty 
size,  color,  form,  mobility,  (fee,  which  even  old  grammars 

M* 


150 


ON  VERBS. 


will  allow  it  to  possess  ;  but  I  shall  leave  that  work  for  you 
to  perform  at  your  leisure. 

Whoever  has  any  doubts  remaining  in  reference  to  the 
abilities  of  all  things  to  produce,  continue,  or  prevent  motion^ 
will  do  well  to  consult  the  prince  of  philosophers,  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  who,  after  Gallileo,  has  treated  largely  upon  the 
laws  of  motion.  He  asserts  as  a  fact,  full  in  illustration  of 
the  principles  T  am  laboring  to  establish,  that  in  ascending 
a  hill,  the  trace  rope  pulls  the  horse  back  as  much  as  he 
draws  that  forward,  only  the  horse  overcomes  the  resist- 
ance of  the  load,  and  moves  it  up  the  hill.  On  the  old  sys- 
tems, no  power  would  be  requisite  to  move  the  load,  for  it 
could  oppose  no  resistance  to  the  horse  ;  and  the  small  child 
could  move  it  with  as  much  ease  as  the  strong  team. 

Who  has  not  an  acquaintance  sufficiently  extensive  to 
know  these  things?  I  can  not  believe  there  is  a  person  pre- 
sent, who  does  not  fully  comprehend  my  meaning,  and  dis- 
cover the  correctness  of  the  ground  I  have  assumed.  And 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  no  collection  or  arrange- 
ment of  words  can  be  composed  itAo  a  sentence,  which  do 
not  obtain  their  meaning  from  a  connection  of  things  as  they 
exist  and  operate  in  the  material  and  intellectual  world,  and 
that  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  man  to  frame  a  sentence,  to 
think  or  speak,  but  in  conformity  with  these  general  and 
exceptionless  laws. 

This  important  consideration  meets  us  at  every  advancing 
step,  as  if  to  admonish  us  to  abandon  the  vain  project  of 
seeking  a  knowledge  of  language  without  an  acquaintance 
with  the  great  principles  on  which  it  depends.  To  look  for 
the  leading  rules  of  speech  in  set  forms  of  expression,  or  in 
the  capricious  customs  of  any  nation,  however  learned,  is 
as  futile  as  to  attempt  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  world  by 


RELATIVE  ACTION. 


151 


shutting  ourselves  up  in  a  room,  and  looking  at  paintings 
and  drawings  which  may  be  furnished  by  those  who  know 
as  little  of  it  as  we  do.  How  fallacious  would  be  the  at- 
tempt, how  much  worse  than  time  thrown  away,  for  the 
parent  to  shut  up  his  child  in  a  lonely  room,  and  undertake 
to  impress  upon  its  mind  a  knowledge  of  men,  beasts,  birds, 
fish,  insects,  rivers,  mountains,  fields,  flowers,  houses,  cities, 
&c.,  with  no  other  aid  than  a  few  miserable  pictures,  unlike 
the  reality,  and  in  many  respects  contradictory  to  each 
other.  And  yet  that  would  be  adopting  a  course  very  simi- 
lar to  the  one  long  employed  as  the  only  means  of  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  language  ;  limited  to  a  set  of  arbitrary,  false, 
and  contradictory  rules,  which  the  brightest  geniuses  could 
never  understand,  nor  the  most  erudite  employ  in  the  ex- 
pression of  ideas.  The  grammars,  it  was  thought,  must  be 
studied  to  acquire  the  use  of  language,  and  yet  they  were 
forgotten  before  such  knowledge  was  put  in  practice. 

A  simple  remark  on  the  principles  of  relative  action,  and 
we  will  pass  to  the  consideration  of  agents  and  objects,  or 
the  more  immediate  causes  and  effects  of  action. 

We  go  forth  at  the  evening  hour  and  look  upon  the  sun 
sinking  beneath  the  horizon  ;  we  mark  the  varying  hues  of 
light  as  they  appear,  and  change,  and  fade  away.  We  see 
the  shades  of  night  approaching,  with  a  gradual  pace,  till 
the  beautiful  landscape  on  which  we  had  been  gazing,  the 
hills  and  the  meadows  :  the  farm  house  and  the  cultivated 
fields,  the  grove,  the  orchard,  and  the  garden  ;  the  tranquil 
lake  and  the  babbling  brook  ;  the  dairy  returning  home,  and 
the  lambkins  gambolling  beside  tlieir  dams ;  all  recede  from 
our  view,  and  appear  to  us  no  longer.  All  this  is  relative 
action.    But  so  far  as  language  and  ideas  are  concerned,  it 


152 


ON  VERBS. 


matters  not  whether  the  sun  actually  sinks  behind  the  hills, 
or  the  hills  interpose  between  it  and  us ;  whether  the  land- 
scape recedes  from  our  view,  or  the  shades  of  night  intercept 
so  as  to  obscure  our  vision.  The  habit  of  thought  is  the 
same,  and  the  form  of  expression  must  agree  with  it.  We 
say  the  sun  rises  and  sets,  in  reference  to  the  obvious  fact, 
without  stopping  to  inquire  whether  it  really  moves  or  not. 
Nor  is  such  an  inquiry  at  all  necessary,  as  to  matter  of  fact, 
for  all  we  mean  by  such  expressions,  is,  that  by  some  pro- 
cess, immaterial  to  the  case  in  hand,  the  sun  stands  in  a  new 
relation  to  the  earth,  its  altitude  is  elevated  or  depressed, 
and  hence  the  action  is  strictly  relative.  For  we  should 
rember  that  rising  and  setting,  up  and  down,  above  and  be- 
low, in  reference  to  the  earth,  are  only  relative  terms. 

We  speak  and  read  of  the  changes  of  the  moon,  and  we 
correctly  understand  each  other.  But  in  truth  the  moon 
changes  no  more  at  one  time  than  at  another.  The  action 
is  purely  relative.  One  day  we  observe  it  before  the 
sun,  and  the  next  behind  it,  as  we  understand  these  terms. 
The  precise  time  of  the  change,  when  it  will  appear  to  us 
in  a  different  relation  to  the  sun,  is  computed  by  astrono- 
mers,  and  set  down  in  our  almanacs  ;  but  it  changes  no 
more  at  that  time  than  at  any  other,  for  like  every  thing 
else,  it  is  always  changing. 

In  a  case  we  mentioned  in  a  former  lecture,  "  John  looks 
like  or  resembles  his  brother,  we  have  an  example  of  relative 
action.  So  in  the  case  of  two  men  travelling  the  same  way, 
starting  together,  but  advancing  at  different  rates;  one,  we 
say,  falls  behind  the  other.  In  this  manner  of  expression, 
we  follow  exactly  the  principles  on  which  we  started,  and 
suit  our  language  to  our  ideas  and  habits  of  thinking.  By 
the  law  of  optics  things  are  reflected  upon  the  retina  of  the 


ANECDOTE  OF  GALLILEO. 


153 


eye  inversely,  that  is,  upside  down  ;  but  they  are  always 
seen  in  a  proper  relation  to  each  other,  and  if  there  is  any 
thing  wrong  in  the  case,  it  is  overcome  by  early  habit ;  and 
80  our  language  accords  with  things  as  they  are  manifested 
to  our  understandings. 

These  examples  will  serve  to  illustrate  what  we  mean  by 
relative  action,  when  applied  to  natural  philosophy  or  the 
construction  of  language. 

I  had  intended  in  this  lecture  to  have  treated  of  the  agents 
and  objects  of  verbs,  to  prove,  in  accordance  with  the  first 
and  closest  principles  of  philosophy,  that  every  *'  cause  must 
have  an  effecty^  or,  in  other  words,  that  every  action  must 
terminate  on  some  object,  either  expressed  or  necessarily 
understood ;  but  I  am  admonished  that  I  have  occupied 
more  than  my  usual  quota  of  time  in  this  lecture  already, 
and  hence  I  shall  leave  this  work  for  our  next. 

I  will  conclude  by  the  relation  of  an  anecdote  or  two  from 
the  life  of  that  wonderful  man,  Gallileo  Gallilei,  who  was 
many  years  professor  of  mathematics  at  Padua.  Possessed 
of  a  strong,  reflecting  mind,  he  had  early  given  his  attention 
to  the  observation  of  things,  their  motions,  tendencies,  and 
power  of  resistance,  from  which  he  ascended,  step  by  step, 
to  the  sublime  science  of  astronomy.  Being  of  an  honest 
and  frank,  as  well  as  benevolent  disposition,  he  shunned  not 
to  state  and  defend  theories  at  war  with  the  then  received 
opinions.  All  learning  was,  at  that  time,  in  the  hands  or 
under  the  supervision  of  the  ecclesiastics,  who  were  content 
to  follow  blindly  the  aristotelian  philosophy,  which,  in  many 
respects,  was  not  unlike  that  still  embraced  in  our  neuter 
verb  systems  of  grammar.  There  was  a  sworn  hostility 
against  all  improvement,  or  innovation  as  it  was  called,  in 
science  as  well  as  in  theology.    The  copernican  system. 


154 


ON  VERBS. 


to  which  Gallileo  was  inclined,  if  it  had  not  been  formally 
condemned,  had  been  virtually  denounced  as  false,  and  its 
advocates  heretical.  Hence  Gallileo  never  dared  openly 
to  defend  it,  but,  piece  by  piece,  under  different  names,  he 
brought  it  forth,  which,  carried  out,  would  establish  the  he- 
retical system.  Dwelling  as  a  light  in  the  midst  of  sur- 
rounding  darkness,  he  cautiously  discovered  the  precious 
truths  revealed  to  his  mind,  lest  the  flood  of  light  should 
distract  and  destroy  the  mental  vision,  break  up  the  ele- 
ments of  society,  let  loose  the  resistless  powers  of  ignorance, 
prejudice  and  bigotry,  and  envelope  himself  and  friends  in 
a  common  ruin.  At  length  having  prepared  in  a  very 
guarded  manner  his  famous  "Dialogues  on  the  Ptolmaic  and 
Copernican  Systems,"  he  obtained  permission,  and  ventured 
to  publish  it  to  the  world,  altho  an  edict  had  been  promul- 
gated enjoining  silence  on  the  subject,  and  he  had  been 
personally  instructed  "  not  to  believe  or  teach  the  motion  of 
the  earth  in  any  manner. 

By  the  false  representation  of  his  enemies,  suspicions  were 
aroused  and  busily  circulated  prejudicial  to  Gallileo.  Pope 
Urban  himself,  his  former  friend,  became  exasperated  to- 
wards him,  and  a  sentence  against  him  and  his  books  was 
fulminated  by  the  Cardinals,  prohibiting  the  "  sale  and  vend- 
ing of  the  latter,  and  condemning  him  to  the  formal  prison 
of  the  Holy  Office  for  a  period  determined  at  their  pleasure." 
The  sentence  of  the  Inquisition  was  in  part  couched  in  these 
words — "  We  pronounce,  judge,  and  declare,  that  you,  the 
said  Gallileo,  by  reason  of  these  things,  which  have  been  de- 
tailed in  the  course  of  this  investigation,  and  which,  as  above, 
you  have  confessed,  have  rendered  yourself  vehemently  sus- 
pected  by  this  Holy  Office,  of  heresy  ;  that  is  to  say,  that 
you  believe  and  hold  the  false  doctrine,  and  contrary  to  the 


ANECDOTE.  155 

Holy  and  Divine  Scriptures,  namely,  that  the  sun  is  tlie  cen- 
ter of  the  world,  and  that  it  does  not  move  from  east  to  west, 
and  that  the  earth  does  woue,  and  is  not  the  center  of  the 
world  ;  also,  that  an  opinion  can  he  held  and  supported  as 
probable,  after  it  has  been  declared,  and  finally  decreed  con- 
trary to  the  Holy  Scriptures" — by  the  Holy  See  !  !  "  From 
which,"  they  continue,  "  it  is  our  pleasure  that  you  be  ab- 
solved, provided  that,  first,  with  a  sincere  heart,  and  un- 
feigned faith,  in  our  presence,  you  abjure,  curse,  and  detest 
the  said  errors  and  heresies,  and  every  other  error  and 
heresy  contrary  to  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church  of 
Rome,  in  the  form  now  shown  to  you." 

After  suffering  under  this  anathema  some  time,  Gallileo, 
by  the  advice  of  his  friends,  consented  to  make  a  public 
abjuration  of  his  former  heresies  on  the  laws  of  motion. 
Kneeling  before  the  "  Most  Eminent  and  Most  Reverend 
Lords  Cardinals,  General  Inquisitors  of  the  universal  Christ- 
ian republic,  against  heretical  depravity,  having  before  his 
eyes  the  Holy  Gospels,"  he  swears  that  he  always  "  be- 
lieved, and  now  believes,  and  with  the  help  of  God,  will  in 
future  believe,  every  article  which  the  Holy  Catholic  Church 
of  Rome  holds,  teaches,  and  preaches" — that  he  does  alto- 
gether "  abandon  the  false  opinion  which  maintains  that  the 
*  sun  is  the  center  of  the  world,  and  that  the  earth  is  not  the 
center  and  movable,^  that  with  a  sincere  heart  and  unfeigned 
faith,  he  abjures,  curses,  and  detests  the  said  errors  and 
heresies,  and  every  other  error  and  sect  contrary  to  the 
said  Holy  Church,  and  that  he  will  never  more  in  future, 
say  or  assert  any  thing  verbally,  or  in  writing,  which  may 
give  rise  to  similar  suspicion."  As  he  arose  from  his  knees, 
it  is  said,  he  whispered  to  a  friend  standing  near  him,  "  E 
pur  si  muove^^ — it  does  move,  tho. 


156 


ON  VERBS. 


In  our  times  we  are  not  fated  to  live  under  the  terrors  of 
the  Inquisition  ;  but  prejudice,  if  not  as  strong  in  power  to 
execute,  has  the  abihty  to  blind  as  truly  as  in  other  ages, 
and  keep  us  from  the  knowledge  and  adoption  of  practical 
improvements.  And  it  is  the  same  philosophy  now,  which 
asks  if  inanimate  matter  can  act,  which  demanded  of  Galli- 
leo  if  this  ponderous  globe  could  fly  a  thousand  miles  in  a 
minute,  and  no  body  feel  the  motion  ;  and  with  Deacon 
Homespun,  in  the  dialogue,  "  why,  if  this  world  turned  up- 
side  down,  the  water  did  not  spill  from  the  mill  ponds,  and 
all  the  people  fall  headlong  to  the  bottomless  pit  ?" 

If  there  arc  any  such  peripatetics  in  these  days  of  light 
and  science,  who  still  cling  to  the  false  and  degrading  sys- 
tems  of  neutrality,  because  they  are  honorable  for  age,  or 
sustained  by  learned  and  good  men,  and  who  will  oppose 
all  improvement,  reject  without  examination,  or,  what  is 
still  worse,  refuse  to  adopt,  after  being  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  it,  any  system,  because  it  is  novel,  an  innovation 
upon  established  forms,  I  can  only  say  of  them,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Micanzio,  the  Venetian  friend  of  Gallileo — "  The 
efforts  of  such  enemies  to  get  these  principles  prohibited, 
will  occasion  no  loss  either  to  your  reputation,  or  to  the  in- 
telligent part  of  the  world.  As  to  posterity,  this  is  just  one 
of  the  surest  ways  to  hand  them  down  to  them.  But  what 
a  wretched  set  this  must  be,  to  whom  every  good  thing,  and 
all  that  is  found  in  nature,  necessarily  appears  hostile  and 
odious." 


LECTURE  X. 


ON  VERBS. 

A  philosophical  axiom— Manner  of  expressing  aciion. — Things 
taken  for  granted. — Simple  facts  must  be  known. — Must  never 
deviate  from  the  truth. — Every  cause  will  have  an  effect. — An 
example  of  an  intransitive  verb. — Objects  expressed  or  implied. — 
All  language  eliptical. — Intransitive  verbs  examined. — I  run. — 
1  walk.~To  step.— Birds  fly. — It  rains. — The  fire  burns. — The 
Hun  shines. — To  smile. — Eat  and  drink. — Miscellaneous  exam- 
ples.— Evils  of  false  teaching. — A  change  is  demanded. — These 
principles  apply  universally. — Their  importance. 

We  have  made  some  general  remarks  on  the  power, 
cause,  and  means,  necessary  in  the  production  of  action. 
We  now  approach  nearer  to  the  application  of  these  prin- 
ciples as  observed  in  the  immediate  agency  and  effects  which 
precede  and  follow  action,  and  as  connected  with  the  verb. 

It  is  an  axiom  in  philosophy  which  cannot  be  contro- 
verted, that  every  effect  is  the  product  of  a  prior  cause,  and 
that  every  cause  will  necessarily  produce  a  corresponding 
effect.  This  fact  has  always  existed  and  will  forever  re- 
main  unchanged.  It  applies  universally  in  physical,  men- 
tal, and  moral  science  ;  to  God  or  man  ;  to  angels  or  to 
atoms  ;  in  time  or  thro  eternity.  No  language  can  be  con- 
structed which  does  not  accord  with  it,  for  no  ideas  can  be 
gained  but  by  an  observance  of  its  manifestations  in  the 
material  or  spiritual  universe.  The  manner  of  expressing 
this  cause  and  effect  may  differ  in  different  nations  or  by 
people  of  the  same  nation,  but  the  fact  remains  unaltered, 

N 


158 


ON  VERBS. 


and  so  far  as  understood  the  idea  is  the  same.  In  the  case 
of  the  horse  mentioned  in  a  former  lecture,*  the  idea  was 
the  same,  but  the  manner  of  expressing  it  different.  Let 
that  horse  tcalk,  lay  down,  roll  over,  rise  up,  shake  himself, 
rear,  or  sland  still,  all  present  will  observe  the  same  attitude 
of  the  horse,  and  will  form  the  same  ideas  of  his  positions. 
Some  will  doubtless  inquire  more  minutely  into  the  cause 
and  tneajis  by  which  these  various  actions  are  produced, 
what  muscles  are  employed,  what  supports  are  rendered  by 
the  bones  ;  and  the  whole  regulated  by  the  will  of  the 
horse,  and  their  conclusions  may  be  quite  opposite.  But 
this  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  obvious  fact  expressed  by 
the  words  above  ;  or,  more  properly,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
enter  into  a  minute  detail  of  these  minor  considerations, 
these  secret  springs  of  motion,  in  order  to  relate  the  actions 
of  the  horse.  For  were  we  to  do  this  we  should  be  re- 
quired to  go  back,  step  by  step,  and  find  the  causes  still 
more  numerous,  latent,  and  perplexing.  The  pursuit  of 
causes  would  lead  us  beyond  the  mere  organization  of  the 
horse,  his  muscular  energy,  and  voluntary  action  ;  for 
gravitation  has  no  small  service  to  perform  in  the  accom- 
plishmeut  of  these  results  ;  as  well  as  other  principles.  Let 
gravitation  be  removed,  and  how  could  the  horse  lay  down  ? 
He  could  roll  over  as  well  in  the  air  as  upon  the  ground. 
But  the  particular  notice  of  these  things  is  unnecessary  in 
the  construction  of  language  to  express  the  actions  of  the 
horse  ;  for  he  stands  as  the  obvious  agent  of  the  whole,  and 
the  effects  are  seen  to  follow — the  horse  is  laid  down,  his 
hody  is  rolled  over,  the  forepart  of  it  is  reared  up,  himself  is 
shaken,  and  the  whole  feat  is  produced  by  the  direction  of 
his  master. 
*  Page  41. 


MANNER  OF  ACTION. 


159 


Allow  me  to  rccal  an  idea  we  considered  in  a  former 
lecture.  I  said  no  action  as  such  could  be  known  distinct 
from  the  thing  which  acts ;  that  action  as  such  is  not  per- 
ceptible, and  that  all  things  act,  according  to  the  ability 
they  possess.  To  illustrate  this  idea  :  Take  a  magnet  and 
lower  it  down  over  a  piece  of  iron,  till  it  attracts  it  to  itself 
and  holds  it  suspended  there.  If  you  are  not  in  posses- 
sion of  a  magnet  you  can  make  one  at  your  pleasure,  by 
the  following  procesf?.  Lay  your  knife  blade  on  a  flat  iron, 
or  any  hard,  smooth  surface  ;  let  another  take  the  old  tongs 
or  other  iron  which  have  stood  erect  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time,  and  draw  it  upon  the  blade  for  a  minute  or  more. 
A  magnetic  power  will  be  conveyed  from  the  tongs  to  the 
blade  sufficient  to  take  up  a  common  needle.  The  tongs 
themselves  may  be  manufactured  into  a  most  perfect  mag- 
het.  Now  as  the  knife  holds  the  needle  suspended  beneath 
it  you  perceive  there  must  be  an  action,  a  power,  and 
cause  exerted  beyond  our  comprehension.  Let  the  mag- 
netic power  be  extracted  from  the  blade,  and  the  needle  will 
drop  to  the  floor.  A  common  unmagnetized  blade  will  not 
raise  and  hold  a  needle  as  this  does.  How  those  tongs 
come  in  possession  of  such  astonishing  power ;  by  what 
process  it  is  there  retained  ;  the  power  and  means  of  trans- 
mission  of  a  part  of  it  to  the  knife  blade,  and  the  reason  of 
the  phenomena  you  now  behold — an  inanimate  blade  draw- 
ing to  itself  and  there  holding  this  needle  suspended — will 
probably  long  remain  unknown  to  mortals.  But  that  such 
arc  the  facts,  incontestibly  true,  none  will  deny,  for  the  ev- 
idence is  before  us.  Now  fix  your  attention  on  that  needle. 
There  is  an  active  and  acting  principle  in  that  as  well  as  in 
the  magnetized  blade  ;  for  the  blade  will  not  attract  a  splin, 
ter  of  wood,  of  whalebone,  or  piece  of  glass,  tho  equal  in 


160 


ON  VERBS. 


size  and  weight.  It  will  have  no  operation  on  them.  Then 
it  is  by  a  sort  of  mutual  affinity,  a  reciprocity  of  attacli- 
mcKt,  between  the  blade  and  needle,  that  this  phenomena  is 
produced. 

To  apply  this  illustration  you  have  only  to  reverse  the 
case — turn  the  knife  and  needle  over — and  see  all  things 
attracted  to  the  earth  by  the  law  of  gravitation,  a  principle 
abiding  in  all  matter.  All  that  renders  the  exhibition  of  the 
magnet  curious  or  wonderful  is  that  it  is  an  uncommon  con- 
dition of  things,  an  apparent  counteraction  of  the  regular 
laws  of  nature.  But  we  should  know  that  the  same  sub- 
lime principle  is  constantly  operating  thro  out  universal  na- 
ture. Let  that  be  suspended,  cease  its  active  operations 
for  a  moment,  and  our  own  earth  will  be  decomposed  into- 
particles  ;  the  sun,  moon  and  stars  will  dissolve  and  min- 
gle with  the  common  dust  ;  all  creation  will  crumble  into 
atoms,  and  one  vast  ocean  of  darkness  and  chaos  will  fili 
the  immensity  of  space. 

Are  you  then  prepared  to  deny  the  principles  for  which 
we  are  contending  ?  I  think  you  will  not ;  but  accede  the 
ground,  that  such  being  the  fact,  true  in  nature,  language, 
correctly  explained,  is  only  the  medium  by  which  the  ideas 
of  these  great  truths,  may  be  conveyed  from  one  mind  to 
another,  and  must  correspond  therewith.  If  language  is  the 
sign  of  ideas,  and  ideas  are  the  impressions  of  things,  it 
follows  of  necessity^  that  no  language  can  be  employed  un- 
less it  corresponds  with  these  natural  laws,  or  first  princi- 
pies.  The  untutored  child  cannot  talk  of  these  things,  nor 
comprehend  our  meaning  till  clearly  explained  to  it.  But 
some  people  act  as  tho  they  thought  children  must  first 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  words,  and  then  begin  to  learn  what 


THINGS  TAKEN  FOR  GRANTED. 


161 


such  words  mean.  This  is  putting  the  "  cart  before  the 
horse." 

Much,  in  this  world,  is  to  be  taken  for  granted.  We 
can  not  enter  into  the  minutiae  of  all  we  would  express,  or 
have  understood.  We  go  upon  the  ground  that  other  peo- 
ple know  something  as  well  as  we,  and  that  they  will  ex- 
ercise  that  knowledge  while  listening  to  our  relation  of  some 
new  and  important  facts.  Hence  it  is  said  that  "  brevity  is 
the  soul  of  wit."  But  suppose  you  should  talk  of  surds, 
simple  and  quadratic  equations,  diophantine  problems,  and 
logarithms,  to  a  person  who  knows  nothing  of  proportion 
or  relation,  addition  or  subtraction.  What  would  they  know 
about  your  words  1  You  might  as  well  give  them  a  de- 
scription  in  Arabic  or  Esquimaux.  They  must  first  learn 
the  simple  rules  on  which  the  whole  science  of  mathematics 
depends,  before  they  can  comprehend  a  dissertation  on  the 
more  abstruse  principles  or  distant  results.  So  children 
must  learn  to  observe  things  as  they  are,  in  their  simplest 
manifestations,  in  order  to  understand  the  more  secret  and 
sublime  operations  of  nature.  And  our  languge  should  al- 
ways  be  adapted  to  their  capacities  ;  that  is,  it  should  agree 
with  their  advancement.  You  may  talk  to  a  zealot  in  pol- 
itics  of  religion,  the  qualities  of  forbearance,  candor,  and 
veracity  ;  to  the  enthusiast  of  science  and  philosophy  ;  to 
the  bigot  of  liberality  and  improvement ;  to  the  miser  of 
benevolence  and  suffering  ;  to  the  profligate  of  industry 
and  frugality  ;  to  the  misanthrope  of  philanthropy  and  pa- 
triotism ;  to  the  degraded  sinner  of  virtue,  truth,  and  heav- 
en ;  but  what  do  they  know  of  your  meaning?  How  are 
they  the  wiser  for  your  instruction  ?  You  have  touched  a 
cord  which  does  not  vibrate  thro  their  hearts,  or,  phreno- 
logically,  addressed  an  organ  they  do  not  possess,  except  in 

N* 


162 


ON  VERBS. 


a  very  moderate  degree,  at  least.  Food  must  be  seasoned 
to  the  palates  of  those  who  use  it.  Milk  is  for  babes  and 
strong  meat  for  men.  Our  instruction  must  be  suited  to  tho 
capacities  of  those  we  would  benefit,  always  elevated  just 
far  enough  above  them  to  attract  them  along  the  upward 
course  of  improvement. 

But  it  should  be  remembered  that  evils  will  only  result 
from  a  deviation  from  truth,  and  that  we  can  never  be  jus- 
tified in  doing  wrong  because  others  have,  or  for  the  sake 
of  meeting  them  half  way.  And  yet  this  very  course  is 
adopted  in  teaching,  and  children  are  learned  to  adopt  cer- 
tain technical  rules  in  grammar,  not  because  they  are  true^ 
but  because  they  are  convenient!  In  fact,  it  is  said  by 
some,  that  language  is  an  arbitrary  affair  altogether,  and  is 
only  to  be  taught  and  learned  mechanically  !  But  who  would 
teach  children  that  seven  times  seven  are  fifty,  and  nine 
times  nine  a  hundred,  and  assign  as  a  reason  for  so  doing, 
that  fifty  and  a  hundred  are  more  easily  remembered  than 
forty-nine  and  eighty-one  ?  Yet  there  would  be  as  much 
propriety  in  adopting  such  a  principle  in  mathematics,  as  in 
teaching  for  a  rule  of  grammar  that  when  an  objective  case 
comes  after  a  verb,  it  is  active ;  but  when  there  is  none 
expressed,  it  is  intransitive  or  neuter. 

The  great  fault  is,  grammarians  do  not  allow  themselves 
to  think  on  the  subject  of  language,  or  if  they  do,  they  only 
thiiik  intransitively,  that  is,  produce  no  thoughts  by  their 
cogitations. 

This  brings  us  to  a  more  direct  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject  before  us.  All  admit  the  correctness  of  the  axiom  that 
every  eflTect  must  have  a  cause,  and  that  every  cause  will 
have  an  effect.  It  is  equally  true  that  "  like  causes  will 
produce  like  effectSy''  a  rule  from  which  nature  itself,  and 


AN  INTRANSITIVE  VERB. 


163 


thought,  and  language,  can  never  deviate.  It  is  as  plain  as 
that  two  things  mutually  equal  to  each  other,  arc  equal  to 
a  third.  On  this  immutable  principle  we  base  our  theory 
of  the  activity  of  all  verbs,  and  contend  that  they  must  have 
an  object  after  them,  either  expressed  or  necessarily  under- 
stood.  We  can  not  yield  this  position  till  it  is  proved  that 
causes  can  operate  without  producing  effects,  which  can 
never  be  till  the  oi*der  of  creation  is  reversed !  There  nev- 
er was,  to  our  knowledge,  such  a  thing  as  an  intransitive 
action,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  the  burning  bush.*  In 
that  case  the  laws  of  nature  were  suspended,  and  no  effects 
were  produced  ;  for  the  hush  burned,  but  there  was  nothing 
burnt ;  no  consequences  followed  to  the  bush  ;  it  was  not 
consumed.  The  records  of  the  past  present  no  instance  of 
like  character,  where  effects  have  failed  to  follow,  direct  or 
more  distantly,  every  cause  which  has  been  set  in  operation. 

It  makes  no  difference  whether  the  object  of  the  action 
is  expressed  or  not.  It  is  the  same  in  either  case.  But 
where  it  is  not  necessarily  implied  from  the  nature  and  fit- 
ness of  things,  it  must  be  expressed,  and  but  for  such  object 
or  effect  the  action  could  not  be  understood.  For  example, 
/  run ;  but  if  there  is  no  effect  produced,  nothing  run,  how 
can  it  be  known  whether  I  run  or  not.  If  I  write,  it  is  ne- 
cessarily understood  that  I  write  something — a  letter,  a  hook, 
a  piece  of  poetry,  a  communication,  or  some  other  writing. 
When  such  object  is  not  liable  to  be  mistaken,  it  would  be 
superfluous  to  express  it — it  would  be  a  redundancy  which 
should  be  avoided  by  all  good  writers  and  speakers.  All  lan- 
guages are,  in  this  respect,  more  or  less  eliptical,  which  con- 
stitutes no  small  share  of  their  beauty,  power,  and  elegance. 

*  Exodus,  iii.  2,  3. 


164 


ON  VERBS. 


Tliis  elipsis  may  be  observed  not  only  in  regard  to  the 
objects  of  verbs,  but  in  the  omission  of  many  nouns  after 
adjectives,  vi'hich  thus  assume  the  character  of  nouns ;  as, 
the  Almighty,  the  Eternal,  the  Allvvise,  applied  to  God,  un- 
derstood. So  we  say  the  wise,  the  learned,  the  good,  the 
faithful,  the  wicked,  the  vile,  the  base,  to  which,  if  nouns,  it 
would  sound  rather  harsh  to  apply  plurals.  So  we  say, 
take  your  hat  off  (  ) ;  put  your  gloves  on  (  )  ;  lay  your 
coat  off  (  )  ;  and  pull  your  boots  on  (  ) ;  presuming  the 
person  so  addressed  knows  enough  to  fill  the  elipsis,  and 
not  take  his  hat  off  his  back,  pull  his  gloves  on  his  feet,  or 
his  boots  on  his  head. 

In  pursuing  this  subject  farther,  let  us  examine  the  sam- 
ple words  which  are  called  intransitive  verbs,  because  fre- 
quently used  without  the  object  expressed  after  them  ;  such 
as  run,  walk,  step,  fly,  rain,  snow,  burn,  roll,  shine,  smiles, 
(fee. 

"  I  run:' 

That  here  is  an  action  of  the  first  kind,  none  will  deny. 
But  it  is  contended  by  the  old  systems  that  there  is  no  ob- 
ject on  which  the  action  terminates.  If  that  be  true  then 
there  is  nothing  run,  no  effect  produced,  and  the  first  law  of 
nature  is  outraged,  in  the  very  onset ;  for  there  is  a  causCf 
but  no  effect ;  an  action,  but  no  object.  How  is  the  fact  ? 
Have  you  run  nothing  ?  conveyed  nothing,  moved  nothing 
from  one  place  to  another  ?  no  change,  no  effect,  nothing 
moved  ?  Look  at  it  and  decide.  It  is  said  that  a  neuter  or 
intransitive  verb  may  be  known  from  the  fact  that  it  takes 
after  it  a  preposition.  Try  it  by  this  rule.  "  A  man  run 
against  a  post  in  a  dark  night,  and  broke  his  neck that 
is,  he  run  nothing  against  a  post — no  object  to  run — and 
yet  he  broke  his  neck.    Unfortunate  man  ! 


I  RUN.  1  WALK. 


165 


The  fact  iu  relation  to  this  verb  is  briefly  this  :  It  is  used 
to  express  the  action  which  more  usually  terminates  on  the 
actor,  than  on  any  other  object.  This  circumstance  being 
generally  known,  it  would  be  superfluous  to  mention  the 
object,  except  in  cases  where  such  is  not  the  fact.  But 
whenever  we  desire  to  be  definite,  or  when  there  is  the  least 
liability  to  mistake  the  object,  it  is  invariably  expressed. 
Instances  of  this  kind  are  numerous.  "  They  ran  the  boat 
ashore."  "  The  captain  ran  his  men  to  rescue  them  from 
the  enemy."  "They  ran  the  gauntlet."  "They  run  a 
stage  to  Boston."  "  He  ran  himself  into  discredit."  One 
bank  runs  another."  "The  man  had  a  hard  run  of  it." 
"  Run  the  account  over,  and  see  if  it  is  right."  "  They  run 
forty  looms  and  two  thousand  spindles."  "  He  runs  his  mill 
evenings."  Such  expressions  are  common  and  correct, 
because  they  convey  ideas,  and  are  understood. 

Two  men  were  engaged  in  argument.  The  believer  in 
intransitive  verbs  set  out  to  run  his  opponent  into  an  evident 
absurdity,  and,  contrary  to  his  expectation,  he  ran  himself 
into  one.  Leave  out  the  objects  of  this  verb,  run,  and  the 
sense  is  totally  changed.  He  set  out  to  7'un  into  an  evident 
absurdity,  and  he  ran  into  one ;  that  is,  he  did  the  very  ab- 
sui-d  thing  which  he  intended  to  do.* 

"i  ?m/A:." 

The  action  expressed  by  this  verb  is  very  similar  in 
character  to  the  former,  but  rather  slower  in  performance. 
Writers  on  health  tell  us  that  to  walk  is  a  very  healthy  ex- 
ercise, and  that  it  would  be  well  for  men  of  sedentary  hab- 
its to  walk  several  miles  every  day.  But  if  there  is  no 
action  in  walk,  or  if  it  has  no  object  necessarily  walked,  it 

*  Cardcll's  grammar. 


166 


ON  VERBS. 


would  be  difficult  to  understand  what  good  could  result  frofn 
it. 

"  Did  you  have  a  pleasant  loalk  this  morning  ?"  says  a 
teacher  to  his  granamar  class.  « 

"  We  did  have  a  very  pleasant  one.  The  flowers  were 
blooming  on  each  side  of  the  icalk,  and  sent  forth  their 
sweetest  aronna,  'perfuming  the  soft  breezes  of  the  morning. 
Birds  were  jlitting  from  spray  to  spray,  carolling  their 
hymns  of  praise  to  Deity.  The  tranquil  waters  of  the  lake 
lay  slumbering  in  silence,  and  reflected  the  bright  rays  of 
the  sun,  giving  a  sweet  but  solemn  aspect  to  the  whole 
scene.  To  go  thro  the  grove,  down  by  the  lake,  and  up 
thro  the  meadow,  is  the  most  delightful  walk  a  person  can 
take." 

"  How  did  you  get  your  walk  ?" 

"  Wq  walked  it,  to  be  sure ;  how  did  you  think  we  got 
it?" 

Oh,  I  did  not  know.  Walk,  your  books  tell  you,  is  an 
intransitive  verb,  terminating  on  no  object ;  so  I  supposed, 
if  you  followed  them,  you  obtained  it  some  other  way ;  by 
riding,  running,  sailing,  or,  may  be,  bought  it,  as  you  could 
not  have  walked  it !    Were  you  tired  on  your  return  ?" 

"  We  were  exceedingly  fatigued,  for  you  know  it  is  a 
very  long  walk,  and  we  walked  it  in  an  hour." 

"  But  icliat  tired  you  ?  If  there  are  no  effects  produced 
by  walking,  I  can  not  conceive  why  you  should  be  fatigued 
by  such  exercise." 

Who  does  not  perceive  what  flagrant  violations  of  gram- 
mar rules  are  committed  every  da}^,  and  every  hour,  and 
in  almost  every  sentence  that  is  framed  to  express  our 
knowledge  of  facts. 


TO  STEP.  BIRDS  FLY. 


167 


To  step. 

This  verb  is  the  same  in  character  with  the  two  just  no- 
ticed. It  expresses  the  act  o£  raising  each  foot  alternately, 
and  usually  implies  that  the  body  is,  by  that  means,  con- 
veyed from  one  place  to  another.  But  as  people  step  their 
feet  and  not  their  hands,  or  any  thing  else,  it  is  entirely  use- 
less to  mention  the  object ;  for  generally,  that  can  not  be 
mistaken  any  more  than  in  the  case  of  the  gloves,  boots,  and 
hat.  But  it  would  be  bad  philosophy  to  teach  children  that 
there  is  no  objective  word  after  it,  because  it  is  not  written 
out  and  placed  before  their  eyes.  They  will  find  such  teach- 
ing contradicted  at  every  step  they  take.  Let  a  believer  in 
intransitive  verbs  step  on  a  red  hot  iron  ;  he  will  soon  find 
to  his  sorrow,  that  he  was  mistaken  when  he  thought  that 
he  could  step  without  stepping  any  thing.  It  would  be 
well  for  grammar,  as  well  as  many  other  things,  to  have 
more  practice  and  less  theory.  The  thief  was  detected  by 
bis  steps.    Step  softly  ;  put  your  feet  down  carefully. 

Birds  fly. 

We  learned  from  our  primers,  that 

"  The  eagle's  flight 
Is  out  of  sight." 

How  did  the  eagle  succeed  in  producing  a,  flight  ?  I  suppose 
he  flew  it.  And  if  birds  ever  fly,  they  must  produce  a  flight. 
Such  being  the  fact,  it  is  needless  to  supply  the  object.  But 
the  action  does  not  terminate  solely  on  the  flight  produced, 
for  that  is  only  the  name  given  to  the  action  itself.  The 
expression  conveys  to  the  mind  the  obvious  fact,  that,  by 
strong  muscular  energy,  by  the  aid  of  feathers,  and  the  at- 
mosphere, the  bird  carries  itself  thro  the  air,  and  changes 
its  being  from  one  place  to  another.    As  birds  rarely  fly  a 


168 


ON  VERBS. 


race,  or  any  thing  but  themselves  and  a  flight,  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary  to  suffix  the  object. 
It  rains. 

This  verb  is  insisted  on  as  the  strongest  proof  of  intran- 
sitive action  ;  with  what  propriety,  we  will  now  inquire.  It 
will  serve  as  a  clear  elucidation  of  the  whole  theory  of  in. 
transitive  verbs. 

What  does  the  expression  signify  ?  It  simply  declares 
the  fact,  that  water  is  shed  down  from  the  clouds.  But  is 
there  no  object  after  rains  ?  There  is  none  expressed.  Is 
there  nothing  rained?  no  effect  produced?  If  not,  there  can 
be  no  water  fallen,  and  our  cisterns  would  be  as  empty,  our 
streams  as  low,  and  fields  as  parched,  after  a  rain  as  before 
it !  But  who  that  has  common  sense,  and  has  never  been 
blinded  by  the  false  rules  of  grammar,  does  not  know  that 
when  it  rains,  it  never  fails  to  rain  rain,  water,  or  rain-water, 
unless  you  have  one  of  the  paddy's  dry  rains?  When  it 
hails,  it  hails  hail,  hail-stones,  or  frozen  rain.  When  it 
snows,  it  snows  snow,  sometimes  two  feet  of  it,  sometimes 
less.  I  should  think  teachers  in  our  northern  countries 
would  find  it  exceeding  difficult  to  convince  their  readers 
that  snow  is  an  intransitive  verb — that  it  snows  nothing. 
And  yet  so  it  is ;  people  will  remain  wedded  to  their  old 
systems,  and  refuse  to  open  their  eyes  and  behold  the  evi- 
dences every  where  around  them.  Teachers  themselves, 
the  guides  of  the  young — and  I  blush  to  say  it,  for  I  was 
long  among  the  number — have,  with  their  scholars,  labored 
all  the  morning,  breaking  roads,  shovelling  snow,  and  clear, 
ing  paths,  to  get  to  the  school-house,  and  then  set  down  and 
taught  them  that  to  snow  is  an  zwtransitive  verb.  What 
nonsense  ;  nay,  worse,  what  falsehoods  have  been  instilled 
into  the  youthful  mind  in  the  name  of  grammar  !    Can  we 


INTRANSITIVE  VERBS.  IT  RAINS. 


169 


be  surprised  that  people  have  not  understood  grammar? 
that  it  is  a  dry,  cold,  and  lifeless  business  ? 

I  once  lectured  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  In  a  conversa- 
tion with  Miss  B.,  a  distinguished  scholar,  who  had  taught 
a  popular  female  school  for  twenty  years  ;  was  remarking 
upon  the  subject  of  intransitive  verbs,  and  the  apparent  in- 
consistency of  the  new  system,  that  all  verbs  must  have  an 
object  after  them,  expressed  or  understood  ;  she  said,  "  there 
was  the  verb  rain,  (it  happened  to  be  a  rainy  day,)  the 
whole  action  is  confined  to  the  agent ;  it  does  not  pass  on 
to  another  object ;  it  is  purely  intransitive."  Her  aged 
mother,  who  had  never  looked  into  a  grammar  book,  heard 
the  conversation,  and  very  bluntly  remarked,  "  Why,  you 
fool  you,  I  want  to  know  if  you  have  studied  grammar  these 
thirty  years,  and  taught  it  more  than  twenty,  and  have 
never  lamed  that  when  it  rains  it  always  rains  rain  1  If  it 
did  n't,  do  you  s'pose  you 'd  need  an  umbrella  to  go  out  now 
into  the  storm  ?  I  should  think  you 'd  know  better.  I  al- 
ways told  you  these  plaguy  grammars  were  good  for  noth- 
ing, I  did  n't  b'lieve."  "  Amen,"  said  I,  to  the  good  sense 
of  the  old  lady,  "you  are  right,  and  have  reason  to  be 
thankful  that  you  have  never  been  initiated  into  the  intricate 
windings,  nor  been  perplexed  with  the  false  and  contradic- 
tory rules,  which  have  blasted  many  bright  geniuses  in  their 
earliest  attempts  to  gain  a  true  knowledge  of  the  sublime 
principles  of  language,  on  which  depends  so  much  of  the 
happiness  of  human  life."  The  good  matron's  remark  was 
a  poser  to  the  daughter,  but  it  served  as  a  means  of  her 
entire  deliverance  from  the  thraldom  of  neuter  verbs,  and  the 
adoption  of  the  new  principles  of  the  exposition  of  language. 

The  anecdote  shows  us  how  the  unsophisticated  mind 
will  observe  facts,  and  employ  words  as  correctly,  if  not 


170 


ON  VERBS. 


more  so,  than  those  schooled  in  the  high  pretensions  of  sci- 
ence, falsely  tauglit.  Who  does  not  know  from  the  com- 
monest experience,  that  the  direct  object  of  raining  must 
follow  as  the  necessary  sequence ?  that  it  can  never  fail? 
And  yet  our  philologists  tell  us  that  such  is  not  always  the 
case;  and  that  the  exception  is  to  be  marked  on  the  singu- 
lar ground,  whether  the  word  is  written  out  or  omitted  ! 
What  a  narrow  view  of  the  sublime  laws  of  motion  !  What 
a  limited  knowledge  of  things !  or  else,  what  a  mistake 

"  Then  the  Lord  said  unto  Moses,  behold,  I  will  rain 
bread  for  you  from  heaven." 

"Then  the  Lord  rained  down,  upon  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 
brimstone  and  Jii^e,  from  the  Lord  out  of  heaven." — Bible. 

The  fire  burns. 

The  fire  hirns  the  wood,  the  coal,  or  the  peat.  The 
great  fire  in  New- York  burned  the  buildings  which  covered 
fifty-two  acres  of  ground.  Mr.  Experiment  burns  coal  in 
preference  to  wood.  His  new  grate  burns  it  very  finely. 
Red  ash  coal  burns  the  best ;  it  makes  the  fewest  ashes,  and 
hence  is  the  most  convenient.  The  cook  burns  too  much 
fuel.  The  house  took  fire  and  burned  up.  Burned  what 
up?  Burn  is  an  intransitive  verb.  It  would  not  trouble 
the  unfortunate  tenant  to  know  that  there  must  be  an  object 
burnedy  or  what  it  was.  He  would  find  it  far  more  diflScult 
to  rebuild  his  house.  Do  you  suppose  fires  never  burn  any 
thing  belonging  to  neuter  verb  folks?  Then  they  never 
need  pay  away  insurance  money.  With  the  solitary  ex- 
ception I  have  mentioned — the  burning  bush — this  verb  can 
Dot  be  intransitive. 

The  sun  shines. 

This  is  an  intransitive  verb  if  there  ever  was  one,  because 
the  object  is  not  often  expressed  after  it.    But  if  the  sun 


TO  SHINE.  TO  SMILE. 


171 


emits  no  rays  of  light,  how  shall  it  be  known  whether  it 
shines  or  not?  ^' The  radiance  oi' tho  sun's  bright  beam- 
ing"  is  produced  by  the  exhibition  of  itself,  when  it  bright, 
ens  the  objects  exposed  to  its  rays  or  radiance.  We  talk  of 
sun  shine  and  moon  shine,  but  if  these  bodies  never  produce 
effects  how  shall  it  be  known  whether  such  things  are  real  ? 
Sun  shine  is  the  direct  effect  of  the  sun's  shining.  But 
clouds  sometimes  intervene  and  prevent  the  rays  from  extend- 
ing to  the  earth  ;  but  then  we  do  not  say  "the  sun  shines.^ 
You  see  at  once,  that  all  we  know  or  can  know  of  the  fact 
we  state  as  truth,  is  derived  from  a  knowledge  of  the  very 
effects  which  our  grammars  tell  us  do  not  exist.  Strange 
logic  indeed  !  It  is  a  mark  of  a  wiser  man,  and  a  better 
scholar,  not  to  know  the  popular  grammars,  than  it  is  to 
profess  any  degree  of  proficiency  in  them  ! 
To  smile. 

'  i  iiO  smiles  of  the  morning,  the  smiles  of  affection,  a  smile 
of  kindness,  are  only  produced  by  the  appearance  of  some- 
thing that  smiles  upon  us.  Smiles  are  the  direct  conse- 
quence of  smiling.  If  a  person  should  smile  ever  so  sweetlp 
and  yet  present  no  smiles,  they  might,  for  aught  we  could 
know  to  the  contrary,  be  sour  as  vinegar. 

But  this  verb  frequently  has  another  object  after  it ;  as, 
"  to  smile  the  wrinkles  from  the  brow  of  age,"  or  "  smile 
dull  cares  away."  "  A  sensible  wife  would  soon  reason  and 
smile  him  into  good  nature." 

But  I  need  not  multiply  examples.  When  such  men  as 
Johnson,  Walker,  Webster,  Murray,  Lowthe,  and  a  host  of 
other  wise  and  renowned  men,  gravely  tell  us  that  eat  and 
drink,  which  they  define,  "  to  take  food ;  to  feed  ;  to  take  a 
meal ;  to  go  to  meals ;  to  be  maintained  in  food  ;  to  swallow 
liquors ;  to  quench  thirst ;  to  take  any  liquid  ;"  are  intrans. 


172 


ON  VERBS. 


itive  or  neuter  verbs,  having  no  objects  after  them,  we  nnust 
think  them  insincere,  egregiously  mistaken,  or  else  pos- 
sessed  of  a  means  of  subsistence  different  from  people  gen- 
erally !  Did  they  eat  and  drink,  "  take  food  and  swallow 
liquors,"  mtransitively  ;  that  is,  without  eating  or  drinking 
anything?  Is  it  possible  in  the  nature  of  things  ?  Who 
does  not  see  the  absurdity  ?  And  yet  they  were  great  men, 
and  nobody  has  a  right  to  question  such  high  authority* 
And  the  "  simplijiers^^  who  have  come  after,  making  books 
and  teaching  grammar  to  earn  their  bread,  have  followed 
close  in  their  footsteps,  and,  I  suppose,  eaten  nothing,  and 
thrown  their  bread  away  !  Was  I  a  believer  in  neuter 
verbs  and  desired  to  get  money,  my  first  step  would  be  to 
set  up  a  boarding  house  for  all  believers  in,  and  practisers 
of,  intransitive  verbs.  I  would  board  cheap  and  give  good 
fare.  I  could  afford  it,  for  no  provisions  wo-;ld  be  con- 
sumed. 

Some  over  cautious  minds,  who  are  always  second,  if  not 
last,  in  a  good  cause,  ask  us  why  these  principles,  if  so  true 
and  clear,  were  not  found  out  before  ?  Why  have  not  the 
learned  who  have  studied  for  many  centuries,  never  seen 
and  adopted  them  1  It  is  a  sufficient  answer  to  such  a 
question,  to  ask  why  the  copernican  system  of  astronomy 
was  not  sooner  adopted,  why  the  principles  of  chemistry, 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  the  power  and  application  of 
steam,  nay,  why  all  improvement  was  not  known  before. 
When  grammar  and  dictionary  makers,  those  wise  ex- 
pounders of  the  principles  of  speech,  have  so  far  forgotten 
facts  as  to  teach  that  eat  and  drink,  "  express  neither  action 
nor  passion,"  or  are  "  confined  to  the  agents  ;"  that  when 
a  man  eats,  he  eats  nothing,  or  when  he  drinks,  he  drinks 
nothing,  we  need  not  stop  long  to  decide  why  these  things 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXAMPLES. 


173 


were  unknown  before.  The  wisest  naay  sometimes  mis- 
take ;  and  the  proud  aspirant  for  success,  frequently  passes 
over,  unobserved,  the  humble  means  on  which  all  true  suc- 
cess depends. 

Allow  mo  to  quote  some  miscellaneous  examples  which 
will  serve  to  show  more  clearly  the  importance  of  supply- 
ing the  elipses,  in  order  to  comprehend  the  meaning  of  the 
writers,  or  profit  by  their  remarks.  You  will  supply  the 
objects  correctly  from  the  attendant  circumstances  where 
they  are  not  expressed. 

"  Ask  (  )  and  ye  shall  receive  (  )  ;  sock  (  )  and  ye 
shall  find  (  )  ;  knoclj:  (  )  and  it  shall  be  opened  unto 
you." 

Ask  what  ?  Seek  what  7  Knock  what  ?  That  it  may 
be  opened  ?  Our  "  Grammars  Made  Easy"  would  teach 
us  to  ask  and  seek  nothing !  no  objectives  after  them. 
What  then  could  we  reasonably  expect  to  receive  or  find  ? 
The  tiling  we  asked  for,  of  course,  and  thiit  was  nothing  ! 
Well  might  the  language  apply  to  such,  "  Ye  ask  (  )  and 
receive  wor  (naught)  because  ye  ask  (  )  amiss."  False 
teaching  is  as  pernicious  to  religion  and  morals  os  to  sci- 
ence. 

"  Ciuirge  them  that  are  rich  in  this  world — that  they  do 
good,  x\\n.{  they  be  rich  in  good  works,  ready  to  distribute 
(    ),  willing  to  communimte  (    ).'' — Paul  to  Timothy. 

The  hearer  is  to  observe  that  there  is  no  object  after  these 
words — nothing  distributed,  or  communicated  !  There  is  too 
much  such  charity  in  the  world. 

"  He  spoke  (  ),  and  it  was  done  ;  he  commanded  (  ), 
and  it  stood  fast." 

"  Bless  (    ),  and  curse  (    )  not." — Bible. 

**  Strike  (    )  while  the  iron  is  hot." — Proverb. 
o* 


174 


ON  VERBS. 


"  I  came  (  ),  I  saw  (  ),  I  conquered  (  )." — Ccesar's 
Letter. 

He  lives  (    )  contented  and  happy. 

"  The  life  that  I  now  live,  in  the  flesh,  I  live  by  the  faith 
of  the  son  of  God." — Paul. 

"  Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous,  and  let  my  last 
end  be  like  his." — Numbers. 

As  bodily  exercise  particularly  strengthens  (  ),  as  it  in- 
vites (  )  to  sleep  (  ),  and  secures  (  )  against  great  dis- 
orders, it  is  to  be  generally  encouraged.  Gymnastic  exer- 
cises may  be  established  for  all  ages  and  for  all  classes. 
The  Jews  were  ordered  to  take  a  walk  out  of  the  city  on 
the  Sabbath  day  ;  and  here  rich  and  poor,  young  and  old, 
master  and  slave,  met  (  )  and  indulged  (  )  in  innocent 
mirth  or  in  the  pleasures  of  friendly  intercourse. — Spurz. 
lieim  on  Education. 

"  Men  will  wrangle  (  )  for  religion  ;  write  (  )  for  it ; 
fight  (  )  for  it ;  die  (  )  for  it ;  any  thing  but  live  (  ) 
for  it." — Lacon. 

I  have  addressed  this  volume  to  those  that  think  (  ),  and 
some  may  accuse  me  of  an  ostentatious  independence,  in 
presuming  (  )  to  inscribe  a  book  to  so  small  a  minority. 
But  a  volume  addressed  to  those  that  think  (  )  is  in  fact 
addressed  to  all  the  world  ;  for  altho  the  proportion  of  those 
who  do  (  )  think  (  )  be  extremely  small,  yet  every  in- 
dividual flatters  himself  that  he  is  one  of  the  number." — 
Idem. 

What  is  the  difference  whether  a  man  thinks  or  not,  if  he 
produces  no  thoughts  ? 

"  He  that  thinks  himself  the  happiest  man,  really  is  .so  ; 
but  he  that  thinks  himself  the  wisest,  is  generally  the  great- 
est fool."— /rfem. 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXAMPLES. 


175 


"  A  man  has  many  workmen  emidoyed ;  some  to  plough 
(  )  and  sow  (  ),  others  to  chop  (  )  and  split  (  )  ; 
some  to  mow  (  )  and  reap  (  ) ;  one  to  score  (  )  and 
hew  (  )  ;  two  to  frame  (  )  and  raise  (  ).  In  his  fac- 
tory he  has  persons  to  card  (  ),  spin  (  ),  reel  (  ),  spool 
(  ),  warp  (  ),  and  weave  (  ),  and  a  clerk  to  deliver 
(  )  and  charge  (  ),  to  receive  (  )  and  pay  (  ).  They 
eat  (  ),  and  drink  (  ),  heartily,  three  times  a  day  ;  and 
as  they  work  (  )  hard,  and  feel  (  )  tired  at  night,  they 
lay  (  )  down,  sleep  (  )  soundly,  and  dream  (  )  pleas- 
antly ;  they  rise  (  )  up  early  to  go  (  )  to  work  (  ) 
again.  In  the  morning  the  children  wash  (  )  and  dress 
(  )  and  prepare  (  )  to  go  (  )  to  school,  to  learn  (  ) 
to  read  (    ),  write  (    ),  and  cipher  (  All  neuter  or 

intransitive  verbs  !  ! 

"  The  celebrated  horse,  Corydon,  will  perform  (  )  on 
Tuesday  evening  in  the  circus.  He  will  leap  (  )  over 
four  bars,  separately,  in  imitation  of  the  english  hunter. 
He  will  lie  (  )  down,  and  rise  (  )  up  instantly  at  the 
word  of  command.  He  will  move  (  )  backwards  and  side- 
ways, rear  (  )  and  stand  (  )  on  his  hind  feet  ;  he  will 
sit  (  )  down,  like  a  Turk,  on  a  cushion.  To  conclude 
(  ),  he  will  leap  (  ),  in  a  surprising  manner,  over  two 
horses." — CardelPs  Grammar. 

The  gymnastic  is  not  a  mountebank  ;  he  palms  off  no 
legerdemain  upon  the  public.  He  will  stretch  a  line  across 
the  room,  several  feet  from  the  floor,  over  which  he  will 
leap  (  )  with  surprising  dexterity.  He  will  stand  (  )  on 
his  head,  balance,  (  )  on  one  foot,  and  swing  (  )  from 
side  to  side  of  the  room  ;  lay  (  )  crosswise,  and  sideways  ; 
spring  (  )  upon  his  feel ;  bound  (  )  upon  the  floor  ; 
dance  (    )  and  keel  (    )  over  with  out  touching  his  hands. 


176 


ON  VERBS. 


He  will  sing  (  ),  play  (  ),  and  mimic  (  )  ;  look  (  ) 
like  a  king,  and  act  (  )  like  a  fool.  He  will  laugh  (  ) 
and  cry  (  ),  as  if  real ;  roar  (  )  like  a  lion,  and  chirp 
(  )  like  a  bird.  To  conclude  (  )  :  He  will  do  all  this 
to  an  audience  of  neuter  grammarians,  without  either  "  ac- 
tion or  passion^^^  all  the  while  having  a  "  state  of  being,'' 
motionless,  in  the  center  of  the  room  !  ! 

What  a  lie  !  say  you.  A  lie  ?  I  hope  you  do  not  ac- 
cuse mc  of  lying.  If  there  is  any  thing  false  in  this  matter 
it  all  lies  in  the  quotation,  at  the  conclusion,  from  the  stand- 
ard  grammar.  If  that  is  false,  whose  fault  is  it?  Not  mine, 
certainly.  But  what  if  I  should (  ),  intransitively  ?  I 
should  tell  no  falsehoods. 

But  enough  of  this  If  thtM'c  is  any  thing  irrational  or 
inconsistent,  any  thing  false  or  ridiculous,  in  this  view  of  the 
subject,  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  has  been  long  taught, 
r.ot  only  in  common  schools,  but  in  our  academies  and  col- 
leges, as  serious,  practical  truth  ;  as  the  only  means  of  ac- 
quiring a  correct  knowledge  of  language,  or  fitting  our- 
selves  for  usefulness  or  respectability  in  society.  You  smile 
at  such  trash,  aud  well  you  may  ;  but  you  must  bear  in 
mind  that  grammar  is  not  the  only  thing  in  which  we  may 
turn  round  and  laugh  (    )  at  past  follies. 

But  I  am  disposed  to  consider  tliis  matter  of  more  serious 
consequence  than  to  deserve  our  laughter.  When  I  see  the 
rising  generation  spend  months  and  ^^ears  of  the  best  and  most 
important  part  of  their  lives,  wliich  siiould  be  devoted  to  the 
acqr.lsition  of  that  which  is  true  and  useful,  studying  the 
dark  and  false  theory  of  language  as  usually  taught,  I  am 
far  from  feeling  any  desire  to  laugh  at  the  folly  which  im- 
poses such  a  task  upon  them.  1  remember  too  distinctly 
the  years  that  have  just  gone  by.    I  have  seen  too  many 


EVILS  OF  FALSE  TEACHING. 


177 


blighted  hopes,  too  many  wearisome  hours,  too  many  sad 
countenances,  too  many  broken  resolutions  ;  to  say  nothing 
of  corporeal  chastisements;  to  think  it  a  small  matter  that 
children  are  erroneously  taught  the  rudiments  of  language, 
because  sanctioned  by  age,  or  great  names.  A  change,  an 
important  change,  a  radical  change,  in  this  department  of 
education,  is  imperiously  demanded,  and  teachers  must  obey 
the  call,  and  effect  the  change.  There  is  a  spirit  abroad  in 
the  land  which  will  not  bow  tamely  and  without  complaint, 
to  the  unwarranted  dictation  of  arbitrary,  false,  and  contra- 
dictory rules,  merely  from  respect  to  age.  It  demands 
reason,  consistency  and  plainness  ;  and  yields  assent  only 
where  they  are  found.  And  teachers,  if  they  will  not  lead 
in  the  reformation,  must  be  satisfied  to  follow  after  ;  for  a 
reformation  is  loudly  called  for,  and  will  be  had.  None  are 
satisfied  with  existing  grammars,  which,  in  principle,  ure 
nearly  alike.  The  seventy-three  attempts  to  improve  and 
simplify  Murray,  have  only  acted  intransitively,  and  accom- 
plished very  little,  if  any  good,  save  the  employment  given 
to  printers,  paper  makers,  and  booksellers. 

But  I  will  not  enlarge.  We  have  little  occasion  to  won- 
der  at  the  errors  and  mistakes  of  grammar  makers,  when 
our  lexicographers  tell  us  for  sober  truth,  that  to  act,  to  he 
in  action,  not  to  rest,  to  be  in  motion,  to  move,  is  t?.  w.  a  verb 
neuter,  signifying  no  action!!  or  v.  i.  verb  intransitive, 
producing  no  effects;  and  that  a  neuter  verb  expresses 
(active  transitive  verb)  a  state  of  being!  !  There  are  few 
minds  capable  of  adopting  such  premises,  and  drawing 
therefrom  conclusions  which  are  rational  or  consistent. 
Truth  is  rarely  dieted  from  error,  beauty  from  deformity, 
or  order  from  confusion.  While,  therefore,  we  allow  the 
neuter  systems  to  sink  into  forgetfulness,  as  they  usually  do 


178 


ON  VERBS. 


as  soon  as  we  leave  school  and  shut  our  books,  let  us  throw 
the  mantle  of  charity  over  those  who  have  thouglitlessly 
(without  thinking  thoughts)  and  innocently  lead  us  many 
months  in  dark  and  doleful  wanderings,  in  paths  of  error 
and  contradiction,  niistaken  for  the  road  to  knowledge  and 
usefulness.  But  let  us  resolve  to  save  ourselves  and  future 
generations  from  following  the  same  unpleasant  and  unprofi- 
table  course,  and  endeavor  to  reflect  the  light  which  may 
shiiie  upon  our  minds,  to  dispel  the  surrounding  darkness, 
and  secure  the  light  and  knowledge  of  truth  to  those  who 
shall  come  after  us. 

Many  philologists  have  undertaken  to  explain  our  lan- 
guage by  the  aid  of  foreign  tongues.  Because  there  are 
genitive  cases,  different  kinds  of  verbs,  six  tenses,  etc.  in 
the  Latin  or  Greek,  the  same  distinctions  should  exist  in 
our  gramrijurs.  But  this  urguuieut  will  not  apply,  admit- 
ting that  other  languages  will  not  allow  of  the  plan  of  ex- 
position we  have  adopted,  which  we  very  seriously  question, 
tho  we  have  not  time  to  go  into  that  investigation.  We 
believe  that  the  principles  we  have  adopted  are  capable  of 
universal  application  ;  that  what  is  action  in  England  would 
be  action  in  Greece,  Rome,  Turkey,  and  every  where  else; 
that  "Z/A'c  causes  will  produce  like  effects^^  all  the  w^orld  over. 
It  matters  not  by  whom  the  action  is  seen,  it  is  the  same, 
and  all  who  gather  ideas  therefrom  will  describe  it  as  it  ap- 
pears to  them,  let  them  speak  what  language  they  may. 
But  if  they  have  no  ideas  to  express,  they  need  no  language 
to  speak.  Monkeys,  for  aught  I  know  to  the  contrary,  can  . 
speak  as  well  as  we  ;  but  the  reason  they  do  not.  is  because 
they  have  nothing  to  sa}^ 

Let  Maelzael's  automaton  chess-player  he  exhibited  to  a 
promiscuous  multitude.    They  would  all  attempt  a  dcscrip- 


PRINCIPLES  APPLY  UxNIVERSALLY.  179 

tion  of  it,  so  far  as  they  were  able  to  gain  a  knowledge  of 
its  construction,  each  in  his  own  language.  Some  might  be 
unable  to  trace  the  cause,  the  moving  power,  thro  all  the 
curiously  arranged  means,  to  the  agent  who  acted  as  prime 
mover  to  the  whole  affair.  Others,  less  cautious  in  their 
conclusions,  might  think  it  a  perpetual  motion.  Such  would 
find  a  first  cause  short  of  the  Creator,  the  great  original 
of  all  things  and  actions  ;  and  thus  violate  the  soundest  prin- 
ciples of  philosophy.  Fleaven  has  never  left  a  vacuum 
where  a  new  and  self  sustaining  power  may  be  set  in  ope- 
ration independent  of  his  ever-present  supervision ;  and 
hence  the  long  talked  perpetual  motion  is  the  vainest  chi- 
mera which  ever  occupied  the  human  brain.  It  may  well 
appear  as  the  opposite  extreme  of  neuter  verbs ;  for,  while 
one  would  give  no  action  to  matter  according  to  the  physical 
laws  which  regulate  the  world,  the  other  would  make  mat- 
ter act  of  itself,  independent  of  the  Almighty.  Be  it  ours  to 
take  a  more  rational  and  consistent  stand  ;  to  view  all  things 
and  beings  as  occupying  a  place  duly  prescribed  by  Infinite 
Wisdom,  acting  according  to  their  several  abilities,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  regulation  of  the  all-pervading  laws  which  guide, 
preserve,  and  harmonize  the  whole. 

If  there  is  a  subject  which  teaches  us  beyond  controversy 
the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Power,  a  Universal  Father,  an 
all-wise  and  ever-present  God,  it  is  found  in  the  order  and 
harmony  of  all  things,  produced  by  the  regulation  of  Divine 
laws ;  and  man's  superiority  to  the  rest  of  the  world  is  most 
clearly  proved,  from  the  possession  of  a  power  to  adapt 
language  to  the  communication  of  ideas  in  free  and  social 
converse,  or  in  the  transmission  of  thought,  drawn  from  an 
observation  and  knowledge  of  things  as  presented  to  his 
understanding. 


180 


ON  VERBS. 


There  is  no  science  so  directly  important  to  the  growth 
of  intellect  and  the  future  happiness  of  the  child,  as  the 
knowledge  of  language.  Without  it,  what  is  life  ?  Wherein 
would  man  be  elevated  above  the  brute?  And  what  is 
language  without  ideas?  A  sound  without  harmony — a 
shadow  without  a  substance. 

Let  language  be  taught  on  the  principles  of  true  philoso- 
phy, as  a  science,  instead  of  an  arbitrary,  mechanical  busi- 
ness,  a  mere  art,  and  you  will  no  longer  hear  the  complaint 
of  a  "dn/,  cold^  uninteresting  study."  Its  rules  will  be 
simple,  plain,  and  easy  ;  and  at  every  step  the  child  will 
increase  in  the  knowledge  of  more  than  words,  in  an  ac- 
quaintance with  principles  of  natural  and  moral  science. 
And  if  there  is  any  thing  that  will  carry  the  mind  of  the 
child  above  the  low  and  grovelling  things  of  earth,  and  fill 
the  soul  with  reverence  and  devotion  to  the  Holy  Being 
who  fills  immensity  with  his  presence,  it  is  when,  from  ob- 
serving the  laws  which  govern  matter,  he  passes  to  observe 
the  powers  and  capabilities  of  the  mind,  and  thence  ascends 
to  the  Intellectual  Source  of  light,  life,  and  being,  and  con- 
templates the  perennial  and  ecstatic  joys  which  flow  from 
the  presence  of  Deity;  soul  mingling  with  soul,  love  absorbed 
in  love,  and  God  all  in  all. 


LECTURE  XI. 


ON  VERBS. 

The  verb  to  be. — Compounded  of  different  radical  words. — Am. — 
Defined. — The  name  of  Deity. — Ei. — Is. — Are. — Were,  was. — 
Be. — A  dialogue. — Examples. — Passive  Verbs  examined. — Can- 
not be  in  the  present  tense. — The  past  participle  is  an  adjective. 

We  have  gone  through  the  examination  of  neuter  and 
intransitive  verbs,  with  the  exception  of  the  verb  to  be, 
which  we  propose  to  notice  in  this  place.  Much  more 
might  be  said  on  the  subjects  I  have  discussed,  and  many 
more  examples  given  to  illustrate  the  nature  and  operation 
of  actions  as  expressed  by  verbs,  and  also  in  reference  to 
the  objects  of  action ;  but  I  trust  the  hints  I  have  given  will 
be  satisfactory.  I  am  confident,  if  you  will  allow  your 
minds  to  think  correct  thoughts,  and  not  suffer  them  to  be 
misled  by  erroneous  teaching,  you  will  arrive  at  the  same 
conclusion  that  I  have,  viz.  that  all  verbs  depend  on  a  com- 
mon principle  for  their  explanation  ;  that  they  are  alike  ac- 
tive, and  necessarily  take  an  object  after  them,  either  ex- 
pressed  or  understood,  in  accordance  with  the  immutable 
law  of  nature,  which  teaches  that  like  causes  will  produce 
like  effects. 

The  verb  to  be,  as  it  is  called,  is  conjugated  by  the  aid 
of  six  different  words,  in  its  various  modes  and  tenses ;  am, 
is,  arCf  was,  were,  be.    Am  is  unchanged,  always  in  the  in- 
p 


182 


ON  VERBS. 


dicative  mood,  present  tense,  agreeing  with  the  first  person 
singular.  Is  is  also  unchanged,  in  the  same  mood  and 
tense,  agreeing  with  the  third  person  singular.  Art^  in  the 
singular,  is  the  same  as  are  in  the  plural.  Was  and  wast, 
are  the  same  as  were  and  wert  in  meaning,  being  derived 
from  the  same  etymon.  Be,  being,  and  been,  are  changes 
of  the  same  word.  Be  was  formerly  extensively  used  in 
the  indicative  present,  but  in  that  condition  it  is  nearly  ob- 
solete. Were  was  also  used  in  the  singular  as  well  as 
plural,  especially  when  coming  before  the  agent;  as,  "  were 
I  to  go,  I  would  do  your  business."  But  it  is  now  more 
common  to  have  icas  correctly  used  in  that  case.  But,  as 
one  extreme  often  follows  another,  people  have  laid  were 
quite  too  much  aside,  and  often  crowd  was  into  its  place  in 
common  conversation  ;  as  "  we  wa^  (were)  tliere  yesterday." 
"  There  was  (were)  five  or  six  men  engaged  in  the  busi- 
ness." This  error  appears  to  be  gaining  ground,  and  should 
be  checked  before  it  goes  farther. 

The  combination  of  these  different  words  was  produced 
by  habit,  to  avoid  the  monotony  which  the  frequent  recur- 
rence  of  one  word,  so  necessary  in  the  expression  of  thought, 
would  occasion  :  the  same  as  the  past  tense  of  go  is  made 
by  the  substitution  of  another  word  radically  different,  went, 
the  past  tense  of  icend  or  wind.  "  O'er  hills  and  dales  they 
wend  their  way."  "  The  lowing  herd  wind  slowly  o'er  the 
lea."  Go  and  wend  convey  to  our  minds  nearly  the  si.\me 
ideas.  The  latter  is  a  little  more  poetical,  because  less 
used.  But  originally  their  signification  was  quite  different. 
So  with  the  parts  of  the  verb  to  be.  They  were  consoli- 
dated as  a  matter  of  convenience,  and  now  appear  in  their 
respective  positions  to  express  the  idea  of  being,  life,  or  ex- 
isleiice. 


VERB  TO  BE.  1  AM. 


163 


I  have  said  this  verb  expresses  the  highest  degree  of  ac- 
tion. I  will  now  attempt  to  prove  it.  I  should  like  to  go 
into  a  labored  and  critical  examination  of  the  words,  and 
trace  their  changes  thro  various  languages,  was  it  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  design  of  these  lectures.  But  as  it  is  not, 
I  shall  content  myself  with  general  observations. 

/  am. 

This  word  is  not  defined  in  our  dictionaries.  It  is  only 
said  to  be  "  the  first  person  of  to  Z^e."  We  must  look  for  its 
meaning  some  where  else.  It  is  a  compound  of  two  ancient 
words,  rtA,  breathf  to  breathe,  life,  to  live,  light,  to  light ;  and 
ma,  the  hand,  or  to  hand.  It  signifies  to  vivify,  sustain,  or 
support  one's  self  in  being  or  existence.  In  process  of  time, 
like  other  things  in  this  mutable  world,  its  form  was  changed, 
but  the  meaning  retained.  But  as  one  person  could  not 
mvify  or  live  another,  inflate  another's  lungs,  or  breathe 
ant;ther's  breath,  it  became  restricted  to  the  first  person.  It 
means,  I  breathe  breath,  vivify  myself,  live  life,  or  exercise 
the  power  being  or  living.  It  conveys  this  fact  in  every 
instance,  for  no  person  incapable  of  breathing  can  say  I  am. 
Let  any  person  pronounce  the  word  ah-ma,  and  they  will 
at  once  perceive  the  appropriateness  of  the  meaning  here 
given.  It  is  very  similar  to  the  letter  h,  and  the  pronoun, 
(originally  noun,)  he,  or  the  rough  breathing^^  in  the  Greek 
language.  Ma  is  compounded  with  many  words  which 
express  action  done  by  the  hand  ;  as,  manufacture,  mar\u- 
mit.  It  denoted  any  action  or  work  done  by  the  hand  as 
the  instrument ;  but,  like  other  words,  it  gradually  changed 
its  import,  so  as  to  express  any  effective  operation.  Hence 
the  union  of  the  words  was  natural  and  easy,  and  ahma  de- 
noted breathing,  to  live  or  sustain  life.  H  is  a  precarious 
letter  in  all  languages  that  use  it,  as  the  pronunciation  of  it 


184 


ON  VERBS. 


by  many  who  speak  the  English  language,  will  prove.  It 
was  long  ago  dropt,  in  this  word,  and  after  it  the  last  a,  so 
that  we  now  have  the  plain  word  am. 

It  was  formerly  used  as  a  noun  in  our  language,  and  as 
such  may  be  found  in  Exodus  3  :  13,  14.  "  And  Moses 
said  unto  God,  Behold  when  I  come  unto  the  children  of 
Israel  and  shall  say  unto  them.  The  God  of  your  fathers 
sent  me  unto  you ;  and  they  shall  say  to  me,  What  is  his 
name  ?  what  shall  I  say  unto  them  ?  And  God  said  unto 
Moses,  I  AM  the  I  AM  ;  and  he  said.  Thus  shalt  thou  say 
unto  the  children  of  Israel,  I  AM  hath  sent  me  unto  you." 
Chap.  6 :  3. — "  I  appeared  unto  Abraham,  unto  Isaac,  and 
unto  Jacob,  by  the  name  of  God  Almighty ;  but  by  my 
name  Jehovah  (I  AM)  was  I  not  known  unto  them."  The 
word  Jehovah  is  the  same  as  am.  It  is  the  name  of  the 
self-existent,  self-sustaining  Being,  who  has  not  only  power 
to  uphold  all  things,  but  to  perform  the  still  more  sublime 
action  of  upholding  or  sustaining  himself  This  is  the  high- 
est  possible  degree  of  action.  Let  this  fail,  and  all  creation 
will  be  a  wreck.  He  is  the  ever-living,  uncontrolled,  un- 
failing, unassisted,  and  never-changing  God,  the  Creator, 
Preserver,  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  Beginning  and  End  of 
all  things.  He  is  the  First  Cause  of  all  causes,  the  Agent, 
original  moving  Power,  and  guiding  Wisdom,  which  set  in 
motion  the  wheels  of  universal  nature,  and  guides  and  gov- 
erns them  without  "variableness  or  the  shadow  of  turning." 

"  I  AM  the  first,  and  I,  the  last, 

Thro  endless  years  the  same  ; 
1  AIM  is  my  memorial  still. 

And  my  eternal  name." — Watts'  Hymn. 

Ask  the  Jews  the  meaning  of  this  neuter  verb  in  their 
language.    They  bold  it  in  the  most  profound  and  supersti- 


I  AM   NAME  OF  DEITY. 


185 


tious  reverence.  After  the  captivity  of  their  nation  they 
never  dared  pronounce  the  name  except  once  a  year  when 
the  high  priest  went  into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  hence  the 
true  pronunciation  of  it  was  lost.  Unto  this  day  they  dare 
not  attempt  to  utter  it.  In  all  their  writings  it  remains  in 
characters  untranslated.  When  their  Messiah  comes  they 
expect  he  will  restore  the  pronunciation,  and  by  it  they 
shall  be  able  to  accomplish  all  things.* 

According  to  Plutarch  the  Greeks  had  the  letters  EI, 
THOU  ART,  engraven  on  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi, 
which  is  the  second  person  of  Eimi,  I  am,-[ 

This  motto  was  doubtless  borrowed  from  the  Jews,  to- 
whom  it  was  given  as  the  name  of  the  God  of  Jacob.  The 
same  name  you  may  see  engraven  on  monuments,  on  pic- 
tures of  the  bible,  on  masonic  implements,  and  in  various 
places,  untranslated. 

Who  can  suppose  that  this  word  "  expresses  no  action," 
when  the  very  person  incapable  of  it  can  not  utter  it,  and  no 
one  else  can  speak  it  for  him  ?  It  denotes  the  highest  con- 
ceivable action  applied  to  Deity  or  to  man,  and  it  is  ques- 

*  The  Jews  long  preserved  this  name  in  Samaritan  letters  to 
keep  it  from  being  known  to  strangers.  The  modern  Jews  affirm 
that  by  this  mysterious  name,  engraven  on  his  rod,  Moses  per- 
formed the  wonders  recorded  of  him  ;  that  Jesus  stole  the  name 
from  the  temple  and  put  it  into  his  thigh  between  the  flesh  and 
skin,  and  by  its  power  accomplished  the  miracles  attributed  to  him. 
They  think  if  they  could  pronounce  the  word  correctly,  the  very 
heavens  and  earth  would  tremble,  and  angels  be  filled  with  terror. 

t  Plutarch  says,  "  This  title  is  not  only  proper  but  peculiar  to 
God,  becau.sc  He  alone  is  being  ;  for  mortals  have  no  participation 
of  true  being,  because  that  which  begins  a.nd  ends,  and  is  constantly 
changing,  is  never  one  nor  the  sa7ne,  nor  in  the  same  state.  The 
deity  on  who^c  temple  this  v/ord  was  inscribed  was  called  Apollo, 
Apollon,  from  a  negative  and  poUus,  many,  because  God  is  one, 
his  nature  simple,  and  uncompoundedJ'^ — Vide,  Clark's  Com, 

P* 


186 


ON  VERBS. 


tionable  philosophy  which  dares  contradict  this  fact.  The 
action  expressed  by  it,  is  not  changed,  because  it  does  not 
terminate  on  a  foreign  object.    It  remains  the  same.    It  is 
salf-action. 
He  is. 

This  word  is  constructed  from  an  old  verb  signifying  to 
stand  forth,  to  appear,  to  show  one^s  self,  and  may  be  traced, 
I  think,  to  the  latin  eo,  to  go,  and  exist,  to  exeo,  to  go  from  ; 
that  is,  our  being  or  existence,  came  or  stood  forth  from  God. 
It  is  certainly  a  contraction  from  the  old  english  to  exist. 
1st  is  the  spelling  still  retained  in  the  german  and  some 
other  languages.  It  denotes  self-action.  One  man  does 
not  another,  but  himself.  He  keeps  himself  in  exist- 
ence. 

We  are,  thou  are-est,  arst,  or  art. 

Be  not  surprized  when  I  tell  you  this  is  the  same  word  as 
air,  for  such  is  ihe  fact.  It  signifies  to  inhale  air,  to  air 
ourselves,  or  Ireathe  air.  "  God  treathed  into  man  the 
breath  of  life,  and  man  became  a  living  souV^  The  new 
born  infant  inhales  air,  infates  its  lungs  with  air,  and  begins 
to  live.  We  all  know  how  essential  air  is  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  life.  No  animal  can  live  an  instant  without  it. 
Drop  a  squirrel  into  a  receiver  from  which  all  air  has  been 
extracted,  and  it  can  not  live.  Even  vegetables  will  die 
where  there  is  no  air.  Light  is  also  indispensable  to  life  and 
health.  Air  is  inhaled  and  exhaled,  and  from  it  life  receives 
support.  The  fact  being  common,  it  is  not  so  distinctly  ob- 
served by  the  careless,  as  iho  it  was  more  rare.  But  did 
you  never  see  the  man  dying  of  a  consumption,  when  the 
pulmonary  or  breathing  organs  were  nearly  decayed  1 
How  he  labors  for  brect!)  !  He  asks  to  have  the  windows 
thrown  open.    At  length  he  suffocates  and  dies.    Most  per- 


\ 


WAS.  WERE.  TO  BE.  187 

sons  struggle  hard  for  breath  in  the  hour  of  dissolving  na- 
ture. The  heaving  bosom,  the  hollow  gasp  for  air,  tells 
us  that  the  lamp  of  life  is  soon  to  bo  extinguished,  that  the 
hour  of  their  departure  has  come. 

When  a  person  faints,  we  carry  them  into  the  air,  or  blow 
air  upon  them,  that  nature  may  be  restored  to  its  regular 
course.  In  certain  cases  physicians  find  it  necessary  to 
force  air  into  the  lungs  of  infants  ;  they  can  after  that  air, 
themselves,  imbibe  or  drink  in  air,  or  ins])irit  themselves 
with  air.  But  I  need  not  enlarge.  Whoever  has  been  de- 
prived of  air  and  labored  hard  for  breath  in  a  stifled  or  un- 
wholesome air,  can  appreciate  what  we  mean. 

We  were  ;  he  was. 

I  have  said  before  that  these  words  are  the  same,  and  are 
used  in  certain  cases  irrespective  of  number.  I  have  good 
authority  for  this  opinion,  althosome  etymologists  give  them 
different  derivations. 

Were,  wert ;  worth,  werth  ;  word  and  werde,  are  derived 
from  the  same  etymon  and  retain  a  similarity  of  meaning. 
They  signify  spirit,  life,  energy.  "  In  the  beginning  was 
the  word,  and  the  word  was  with  God."  "  By  the  word  of 
his  grace." 

"  They  were,"  they  inspirited  themselves,  possessed  the 
life,  vitality,  or  spirit,  the  Creator  gave  them,  and  having 
that  spirit,  life,  or  energy,  under  proper  regulation,  in  due 
degree,  they  were  worthy  of  the  esteem,  regard,  sympathy, 
and  good  word  of  others. 

To  be. 

This  is  considered  the  root  of  all  the  words  we  have  con- 
sidered,  and  to  it  all  others  are  referred  for  a  definition. 
Dictionaries  give  no  definition  to  am,  is,  are,  was,  and  icere, 
all  of  them  as  truly  principal  verbs  as  be,  and  possessed  of 


188 


ON  VERBS. 


as  distinct  a  meaning.  It  can  hardly  be  possible  that  they 
should  form  so  important  a  part  of  our  language,  and  yet  be 
incapable  of  definition.  But  such  is  the  fact,  the  most  sig- 
nificant words  in  our  language,  and  those  most  frequently 
used,  are  undefined  in  the  books. 

Mr.  Webster  *says  to  be  signifies,  "to  exist,  to  have  a 
real  state  or  existence,"  and  so  say  Walker  and  Johnson. 
Now  if  it  is  possible  to  "  have  a  state  of  lehig  without  action 
or  passion,"  then  may  this  word  express  neutrality.  But 
the  very  definition  requires  activity,  and  an  object  expressed. 
It  denotes  the  act  of  being,  or  living;  to  exercise  the  powers 
of  life,  to  maintain  a  position  or  rank  in  the  scale  of  existent 
things. 

The  name  of  the  action  is  being,  and  applies  to  the  Al- 
mighty  BEING  who  exists  unchanged  as  the  source  of  all 
inferior  beings  and  things,  whose  name  is  Jehovah,  I  AM, 
the  Being  of  beings,  the  Fountain  of  light,  life,  and  wisdom. 

Be  is  used  in  the  imperative  and  infinitive  moods  correct- 
ly, by  every  body  who  employs  language.  *'  Be  here  in 
ten  minutes."  ^'Bc  it  far  from  thee."  "  I  will  be  in  Boston 
before  noon."  If  there  is  any  action  in  going  from  Provi- 
dence  to  Boston  at  rail-road  speed,  in  two  hours,  or  before 
noon,  it  is  all  expressed  by  the  verb  be,  which  we  are  told 
expresses  no  action. 

The  teacher  says  to  his  scholars  when  out  at  play,  "  I 
want  you  to  be  in  your  seats  in  five  minutes."  What  would 
they  understand  him  to  mean  ?  that  they  should  stand  still  ? 
or  that  they  should  change  their  stjte  of  being  from  play  in 
the  yard,  to  a  state  of  being  in  their  seats?  Tliere  is  no 
word  to  denote  such  change,  except  the  word  to  be.  Be  off*, 
be  gone,  be  here,  be  there,  are  commands  frequently  given 
and  correctly  understood. 


TO  BE.  A  DIALOGUE. 


189 


The  master  says  to  a  briglit  little  lad,  who  has  well 
learned  his  grammar,        here  in  a  minute." 

"  Yes,  sir,  I  will  he  there ;"  but  he  does  not  move. 
*^Be  here  immediately." 
"Yes,  yes,  I  will  he  there." 

"Don't  you  understand  me?  I  say,  he  here  instantly." 

"Oh,  yes,  I  understand  you  and  will  obey." 

The  good  man  is  enraged.  "  You  scoundrel,"  says  he, 
"  do  you  mean  to  disobey  my  orders  and  insult  me  ?" 

"  Insult  you  and  disobey  you  ;  I  have  done  neither,"  re- 
plies the  honest  boy. 

"  Yes  you  have,  and  I  will  chastise  you  severely  for  it." 

"  No,  master,  I  have  not ;  I  declare,  I  have  not.  I  have 
obeyed  you  as  well  as  I  know  how,  to  the  very  letter  and 
spirit  of  your  command." 

"  Did  n't  I  tell  you  to  be  here  in  a  minute,  and  have  not 
you  remained  where  you  were?  and  didn't  you  say  you 
would  be  here  ?" 

"Yes,  sir  ;  and  did  not  I  do  just  what  you  told  me  to  ?" 

"  Why,  no,  you  blockhead  ;  I  told  you  to  he  here," 

"  Well,  I  told  you  I  would  he  there." 

"  You  was  not  here." 

"  Nor  did  you  expect  I  would  he,  if  you  have  taught  me 
to  speak,  write,  and  understand  correctly." 
"  What  do  you  mean,  you  saucy  boy  ?" 
"  I  mean  to  mind  my  master,  and  do  what  he  tells  me  to." 
«  Why  did  n't  you  do  so  then  ?" 

"I  did."  * 
"You  did  n't." 
"I  did." 

"  You  lie,  you  insult  me,  you  contradict  me,  you  saucy 
fellow.    You  are  not  fit  to  be  in  school.    I  will  punish  you 


190 


ON  VERBS. 


severcl3%"  And  in  a  passion  ho  starts  for  his  ferrule,  takes 
the  boys  hand,  and  bruises  him  badly  ;  the  honest  little 
fellow  all  the  while  pleading  innocence  of  any  intended 
wrong. 

In  a  s!:ort  time  they  commence  parsing  this  sentence  : 
"  It  is  necessary  to  he  very  particular  in  ascertaining  the 
meaning  of  words  before  we  use  them."  The  master  puts 
to  he  to  the  same  boy.  He  says  it  is  an  active  verbf  infini- 
tive mood. 

"  How  is  that  ?  an  active  verb  ?" 

«  Yes,  sir." 

'*  No,  it  is  not.  It  is  a  neuter  verb." 

"Begging  your  pardon,  master,  it  is  not.    It  is  active." 

"  Have  I  got  to  punish  you  again  so  soon,  you  impudent 
fellow.  You  are  not  fit  to  be  in  school.  I  will  inform 
your  parents  of  your  conduct." 

"  What  have  I  done  that  is  wrong  ?" 

"  You  say  to  he  is  an  active  verb,  when  /  tell  you,  and 
the  grammar  and  dictionary  tell  you,  it  is  neuter  /" 

"  What  is  a  neuter  verb,  master  ?" 

"  It  expresses  '  neither  action  nor  passion,  but  being  or  a 
slate  of  being.'    Have  you  forgotten  it  ?" 
"  No,  sir,  I  thought  that  was  the  case." 
"  What  did  you  ask  me  for  then  ?" 

"  Because  I  supposed  you  had  found  another  meaning  for 
it." 

"  To  what  do  you  allude,  you  troublesome  fellow,  you  ? 
I  'II  not  bear  your  insults  much  longer." 

"For  what  did  you  punish  me  so  severely  just  now?" 
"  For  disobeying  my  orders." 
"  What  did  you  order  me  to  do?" 
"To  he  here  in  a  minute." 


EXAMPLES  OF  TO.BE. 


191 


"  Well,  did  not  I  do  what  you  told  me  ?" 

"No ;  you  kept  your  seat,  and  did  not  come  near  me." 

"  Well,  I  thought  and  did  just  what  you  now  tell  me  ;  that 
to  be  is  a  neuter  verb,  expressing  no  action,  but  being.  I 
had  a  state  of  being,  and  promised  to  keep  it,  and  did  keep 
it,  and  you  punished  me  for  doing  the  very  thing  you  told 
me  to  do  ! !" 

The  master  looked  down,  shut  up  his  book,  and  began  to 
say  that  grammar  is  a  "  dry,  cold,  and  useless''^  study,  hard- 
ly worth  the  trouble  of  learning  it. 

"  I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  ending, 
saith  the  Lord,  who  is,  and  who  was,  and  who  is  to  come, 
the  Almighty." — Eev.  1  :  8. 

If  there  is  any  action  in  maintaining  eternal  existence,  by 
which  all  things  were  created  and  are  upheld,  it  is  ex- 
pressed  in  the  verbs  am,  is,  and  was. 

God  said,  "  Let  there  be  light,  and  there  was  light  ;"  or 
more  properly  rendered,  "  Light  be,  and  light  was." 

Was  there  no  action  in  setting  the  sun,  moon  and  stars  in 
the  firmament,  and  in  causing  them  to  send  forth  the  rays 
of  light  to  dispel  the  surrounding  darkness  ?  If  there  was, 
be  and  was  denote  that  action. 

"  You  are  commanded  to  be  and  appear  before  the  court 
of  common  pleas,"  etc.  A  heavy  penalty  is  imposed  upon 
those  who  fail  to  comply  with  this  citation — for  negfecting 
to  do  what  is  expressed  by  the  neuter  verb  to  be. 

Such  cases  might  be  multiplied  without  number,  where 
this  verb  is  correctly  used  by  all  who  employ  language, 
and  correctly  understood  by  all  who  are  capable  of  know- 
ing  the  meaning  of  words.  But  1  think  you  must  all  be 
convinced  of  the  truth  of  our  proposition,  that  all  verbs  ex- 


192 


PN  VERBS. 


press  action,  cither  real  or  relative ;  and  in  all  cases  have 
an  object,  expressed  or  necessarily  implied,  which  stands  as 
the  effect,  and  an  agent,  as  the  cause  of  action  :  and  hence 
that  language,  as  a  means  for  the  communication  of  thought, 
does  not  deviate  from  the  soundest  principles  of  philosophy, 
but  in  all  cases,  rightly  explained,  serves  to  illustrate  them, 
in  the  plainest  manner. 

A  few  remarks  on  the  "  Passive  Verb,"  and  I  will  con- 
elude  this  part  of  our  subject,  which  has  already  occupied 
much  more  of  our  attention  than  I  expected  at  the  outset. 

"  A  verb  passive  expresses  a  passion  or  a  suffering,  or 
the  receiving  of  an  action  ;  and  necessarily  implies  an  ob- 
ject acted  upon,  and  an  agent  by  which  it  is  acted  upon  ; 
as,  to  be  loved  ;  Penelope  is  loved  by  me." 

In  the  explanation  of  this  verb,  grammarians  further  tell 
us  that  a  passive  verb  is  formed  by  adding  the  verb  to 
which  is  thus  made  auxiliary,  to  a  past  participle  ;  as,  Por- 
tia was  loved.    Pompey  wa^  conquered. 

It  is  singular  how  forgetful  our  great  men  sometimes  are 
about  observing  their  own  rules.  Take  an  instance  in  Mr. 
Walker's  octavo  dictionary.  Look  for  the  word  simeter,  a 
small  sword.  You  will  find  it  spelled  scimitar.  Then  turn 
over,  and  you  will  find  it  simitar,  witii  the  same  definition, 
and  the  remark,  "  more  properly  cimetar."  Then  turn 
back,  smd  find  the  correct  word  as  he  spells  it,  and  there 
you  will  find  it  cimeter. 

Unsettled  as  to  the  true  spelling,  go  to  our  own  honored 
Webster.  Look  for  "scimiter."  He  says,  see  cimitar. 
Then  look  for  "  cimitar  ;"  see  cimeter.  Then  bunt  up  the 
true  word,  be  it  ar  or  er,  and  you  will  find  it  still  another 
way,  cimiter.    Here  the  scholar  has  seven  different  ways 


PASSIVE  VEEBS. 


198 


to  spell  this  word,  and  neither  of  his  authorities  have  fol- 
lowed  their  own  examples.  I  .cite  this  as  one  of  a  thousand 
instances  where  our  savans  have  laid  down  rules  for  others, 
and  disregarded  them  themselves. 

Portia  is  loved  and  happy.  She  is  respectable,  virtuous^ 
talented,  and  respected  by  all  who  know  her.  She  is  seated 
by  the  door.  Does  the  rfoor  seat  her  ?  What  agent,  then, 
causes  her  passion  or  suffering  ? 

The  book  is  printed.  Will  you  parse  is  printed  ?  It  is 
a  passive  verb,  indicative  mood,  present  tense.  Who  is 
printing  it  ?  causing  it,  in  the  present  tense,  to  suffer  or  re- 
ceive the  action?  The  act  of  printing  was  performed  a 
hundred  years  ago.    How  can  it  be  present  time  ? 

Penelope  is  loved  by  me.  The  blow  is  received  by  me. 
It  is  given  by  mei  Penelope  is  seated  by  me.  The  earth- 
quake  is  felt  by  her.  The  evils  are  suffered  by  her.  The 
thunder  is  heard  by  her.  Does  this  mean  that  she  is  the 
agent,  and  the  earthquake,  evils,  and  thunder,  are  the  ob- 
jects which  receive  the  effects  which  she  produces  ?  That 
would  be  singular  philosophy,  indeed.  But  to  feel,  to  suffer, 
and  to  hear,  are  active,  and  are  constructed  into  passive 
verbs.  Why  is  it  not  as  correct  to  say  she  is  suffering  by 
another's  wrongs,  is  raging  by  the  operation  of  passion,  or 
is  travelling  by  rail-road,  are  passive  verbs  ?  The  fact  is, 
our  language  can  not  be  explained  by  set  rules  or  forms  of 
speech.  We  must  regard  the  sense.  The  past  participle, 
as  it  is  called,  becomes  an  adjective  by  use,  and  describes 
her  as  some  way  affected  by  a  previous  action.  She  is 
learned,  handsome,  modest,  and,  of  course,  beloved  by  all 
who  know  her. 

To  say  "  she  is  placed  by  the  water's  edge,"  is  a  passive 
verb,  and  that  the  water's  edge,  as  the  agent,  causes  her 
Q 


194 


ON  VERBS. 


"  passion,  suffering,  or  receiving  of  the  action,"  is  false  and 
ridiculous,  for  she  placed  herself  there. 

"  We  are  seated  on  our  seats  by  the  stove."  What  pow- 
er is  now  operating  on  us  to  make  us  suffer  or  receive  the 
action  of  being  seated  on  our  seats  ?  Does  the  stove  per- 
form this  action  ?  This  is  a  passive  verb,  present  tense, 
which  requires  an  "  object  acted  upon,  and  an  agent  by 
which  it  is  acted  upon."  But  we  came  in  and  seated  our- 
selves here  an  hour  ago. 

The  man  is  acquitted.  He  stands  acquitted  before  the 
public.  He  is  learned,  wise,  and  happy,  very  much  m- 
proved  within  a  few  years.  He  is  always  active,  studious, 
and  engaged  in  his  own  affairs.  He  is  renowned,  and  val- 
orous.   She  is  respected.    She  lives  respected. 

If  there  is  such  a  thing  as  a  passive  verb,  it  can  never 
be  used  in  the  present  tense,  for  the  action  expressed  by  the 
principal  verb  which  is  produced  by  the  agent  operating 
upon  the  object,  is  always  past  tense,  and  the  auxiliary,  or 
helping  verb  to  be,  is  always  present.  Let  this  verb  be  ana- 
lyzed, and  the  true  meaning  of  each  word  understood,  little 
difficulty  will  be  found  in  giving  it  an  explanation. 

I  will  not  spend  more  time  in  exposing  the  futility  of  this 
attempted  distinction.  It  depends  solely  on  a  verbal  form, 
but  can  never  be  explained  so  as  to  be  understood  by  any 
scholar.  Most  grammarians  have  seen  the  fallacy  of  at- 
tempting to  give  the  meaning  of  this  verb.  They  can  show 
its  form,  but  are  frequently  compelled,  as  in  the  cases 
above,  to  sort  out  the  passed  participles"  from  a  host  of 
adjectives,  and  it  will  be  found  exceeding  troublesome  to 
make  scholars  perceive  any  difference  in  the  use  of  the 
words,  or  in  the  construction  .of  a  sentence.  But  it  may  be 
they  have  never  thought  that  duty  belonged  to  them  ;  that 


PAST  PARTICIPLES  ARE  ADJECTIVES.  195 

they  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  show  them  what  the  book 
says.  Suppose  they  should  teach  arithmetic  on  the  same 
principles,  and  learn  the  scholars  to  set  down  144  as  the 
product  of  12  times  12.  Let  them  look  at  the  form  of  the 
figures,  observe  just  how  they  appear,  and  make  some  more 
like  them,  and  thus  go  thro  the  book.  What  would  the 
child  know  of  arithmetic?  Just  as  much  as  they  do  of 
grammar,  and  no  more.  They  would  understand  nothing 
of  the  science  of  numbers,  of  proportion,  or  addition.  They 
would  exercise  the  power  of  imitation,  and  make  one  figure 
look  like  another.  Beyond  that,  all  would  be  a  terra  in- 
cognita, a  land  unknown.  So  in  the  science  of  language  ; 
children  may  learn  that  the  verb  to  he,  joined  with  the  past 
participle  of  an  active  verb,  makes  a  passive  verb;  but 
what  that  passive  verb  is  when  made,  or  how  to  apply  it, 
especially  in  the  present  tense,  they  have  no  means  of 
knovring.  Their  knowledge  is  all  taken  on  trust,  and  when 
thrown  upon  their  own  resources,  they  have  none  on  which 
to  rely. 


LECTURE  XII. 


ON  VERBS. 

Mood. — Indicative.  Imperative.  Infinitive.  Former  distinc- 
tions.— Subjunctive  mood. — Time. — Past. — Present. — Future. — 
The  future  explained. — How  formed.— Mr.  Murray's  distinction 
of  time. — Imperfect. — Pluperfect. — Second  future. — How  many 
tenses. — Auxiliary  Verbs. — Will. — Shall. — May. — Must. — Can. 
— Do. — Have. 

We  are  now  come  to  consider  the  different  relations  of 
action  in  reference  to  manner  and  time.  We  shail  endeavor 
to  be  as  brief  as  possible  upon  this  subject,  keeping  in  view 
meanwhile  that  candor  and  perspicuity  which  are  indispens- 
able  in  all  our  attempts  to  explain  new  views. 

Mood  signifies  manner.  Applied  to  verbs  it  explains 
how,  in  what  manner,  by  what  means,  under  what  circum- 
stances,  actions  are  performed. 

There  are  three  moods,  the  indicative  or  declarative,  the 
imperative  or  commanding,  and  the  infinitive  or  unlimited. 

The  indicative  mood  declares  an  action  to  be  done  or  do- 
ing, not  done,  or  not  doing.  It  is  always  in  the  past  or 
present  tense  ;  as,  David  killed  Goliath  ;  scholars  learn 
knowledge  ;  I  spoke  not  a  word  ;  they  sing  not. 

The  imperative  mood  denotes  a  command  given  from  the 
first  person  to  the  second,  to  do  or  not  do  an  action.  It  ex- 
presses the  wish  or  desire  of  the  first  person  to  have  a  cer- 
tain  action  performed  which  depends  on  the  agency  of  the 


MOODS. 


197 


second.  The  command  is  present,  but  the  action  signified 
by  the  word  is  future  to  the  giving  of  the  command.  The 
second  person  cannot  comply  with  the  will  of  the  first  till 
such  will  is  made  known  ;  as,  bring  me  a  book  ;  go  to  the 
door. 

The  infinitive  mood  has  no  direct  personal  agent,  but 
is  produced  as  a  necessary  consequence,  growing  out  of  a 
certain  condition  of  things.  It  is  always  future  to  such 
condition  ;  that  is,  some  prior  arrangement  must  be  had 
before  such  consequences  will  follow.  It  is  rdways  future  ; 
as,  they  are  collecting  a  force  to  besiege  the  city.  We 
study  grammar  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  language.  Win- 
dows  are  made  to  admit  light.  The  act  of  besieging  the 
city  depends  on  the  previous  circumstance,  the  collection  of 
a  force  to  do  it.  Were  there  no  windows,  the  light  would 
not  be  admitted  to  the  room. 

These  distinctions  in  regard  to  action  must  be  obvious  to 
every  hearer.  You  all  are  aware  of  the  fact  that  action 
necessarily  implies  an  actor,  as  every  effect  must  have  an 
efficient  cause  ;  and  such  action  clearly  or  distinctly  indi- 
cated, must  have  such  an  agent  to  produce  it.  2d.  You 
are  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  one  person  can  express 
his  will  to  the  second,  directing  him  to  do  or  avoid  some 
thing.  3d.  From  an  established  condition  of  things,  it  is 
easy  to  deduce  a  consequence  which  will  follow,  in  the  na- 
ture of  things,  as  an  unavoidable  result  of  such  a  combina- 
lion  of  power,  cause,  and  means. 

With  these  principles  you  are  all  familiar,  whether  you 
have  studied  grammar  or  not.  They  are  clearly  marked, 
abundantly  simple,  and  must  be  obvious  to  all.  They  form 
the  only  necessary,  because  the  only  real,  distinction,  in  the 
formation  and  use  of  the  verb  to  express  action.    Any  mL 


198 


ON  VERBS. 


nor  distinctions  are  only  calculated  to  perplex  and  embar- 
rass the  learner. 

But  some  grammarians  have  passed  these  natural  barriers, 
and  built  to  themselves  schemes  to  accord  with  their  own 
vain  fancies.  The  remarks  of  Mr.  Murray  upon  this  point 
are  very  appropos.    He  says  : 

"Some  writers  have  given  our  moods  a  mucii  greater 
extent  than  we  have  assigned  to  them.  They  assert  that 
the  english  language  may  be  said,  without  any  great  im- 
propriety, to  have  as  many  moods  as  it  has  auxiliary  verbs; 
and  they  allege,  in  support  of  their  opinion,  that  the  com- 
pound expression  which  they  help  to  form,  point  out  those 
various  dispositions  and  actions,  which,  in  other  languages, 
are  expressed  by  moods.  This  would  be  to  multiply  the 
moods  without  advantage.  It  is,  however,  certain,  that  the 
conjugation  or  variation  of  verbs,  in  the  english  language, 
is  effected,  almost  entirely,  by  the  means  of  auxiliaries. 
We  must,  therefore,  accommodate  ourselves  to  this  circum- 
stance ;  and  do  that  by  their  assistance,  which  has  been 
done  in  the  learned  languages  (a  few  instances  to  the  con- 
trary excepted)  in  another  manner,  namely,  by  varying  the 
form  of  the  verb  itself.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  necessary 
to  set  proper  bounds  to  this  business,  so  as  not  to  occasion 
obscurity  and  perplexity,  when  we  mean  to  be  simple  and 
perspicuous.  Instead,  therefore,  of  making  a  separate  mood 
tor  every  auxiliary  verb,  and  introducing  moods  interroga- 
tive, optative,  promissive,  hortative,  precative,  &c.,  we  have 
exhibited  such  only  as  are  obviously  distinct ;  and  which, 
whilst  they  are  calculated  to  unfold  and  display  the  subject 
intelligibly  to  the  learner,  seem  to  be  sufficient,  and  not 
more  than  sufficient,  to  answer  all  the  purposes  for  which 
moods  were  introduced, 


ERRONEOUS  DISTINCTIONS. 


199 


"  From  grammarians  who  form  their  ideas,  and  make 
their  decisions,  respecting  this  part  of  enghsh  grammar,  on 
the  principles  and  constructions  of  languages  which,  in  those 
points,  do  not  suit  the  peculiar  nature  of  our  own,  but  differ 
considerably  from  it,  we  may  naturally  expect  grammatical 
schemes  that  are  not  very  perspicuous  nor  perfectly  con- 
sistent, and  which  will  tend  more  to  perplex  than  to  inform 
the  learner." 

Had  he  followed  this  rule,  he  would  have  saved  weeks 
and  months  to  every  student  in  grammar  in  the  community. 
But  his  remarks  were  aimed  at  Mr.  Harris,  who  was  by  far 
the  most  popular  writer  on  language  in  England  at  that  time. 
He  has  adopted  the  very  rules  of  Mr.  Murray,  and  carried 
them  out.  By  a  careful  observance  of  the  different  forms 
and  changes  of  the  verb  and  its  auxiliaries,  he  makes  out 
quite  evidently  to  his  own  mind,  fourteen  moods,  which  I 
forbear  to  name. 

Most  grammarians  contend  for  Jive  moods,  two  of  which, 
the  potential  or  powerful,  and  the  suijunctive,  are  predica- 
ted on  the  same  principles  as  Mr.  Harris'  optative,  interro- 
gative, etc.,  which  they  condemn.  It  is  impossible  to  ex- 
plain the  character  of  these  moods  so  as  to  be  understood. 
If,  it  is  said,  is  the  sign  of  the  subjunctive,  and  may  and  can 
of  the  potential ;  and  yet  they  are  often  found  together  ;  as, 
"  I  will  go  if  1  can.''''  No  scholar  can  determine  in  what 
mood  to  put  this  last  verb.  It  of  right  belongs  to  both  the 
potential  and  subjunctive.  If  I  may  be  allowed  to  speak 
my  mind,  I  should  say  that  such  distinctions  were  false. 

I  will  not  go  into  an  exposure  of  these  useless  and  false 
distinctions,  which  are  adopted  to  help  carry  out  erroneous 
principles.  The  only  pretence  for  a  subjunctive  mood  is 
founded  on  the  fact  that  he  and  were  were  formerly  used  in 


200 


ON  VERBS. 


a  character  different  from  what  they  are  at  present.  Be 
was  used  in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  when  doubt 
or  supposition  was  implied  ;  as,  If  I  be  there ;  if  they  be 
wise.  Be  I  a.  man,  and  receive  such  treatment  ?  Were 
was  also  used  instead  of  was  in  the  past  tense ;  as,  "  Were 
I  an  American  I  would  fight  for  liberty.  If  I  were  to  ad- 
mit the  fact."  In  this  character  these  words  are  rapidly 
becoming  obsolete.  We  now  say,  "  If  I  am  there  ;  am  I 
a  man,  and  receive  such  abuses  ?  was  I  an  American  ;  if  I 
was  to  admit,"  etc. 

All  the  round  about,  perplexing,  and  tedious  affair  of 
conjugating  verbs  thro  the  different  modes  and  tenses  will 
appear  in  its  true  character,  when  we  come  to  give  you  a 
few  brief  examples,  according  to  truth  and  plain  sense. 
But  before  doing  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  some  re- 
marks on  time. 

Tense  means  time.  We  distinguish  time  according  to 
certain  events  which  are  generally  observed.  In  the  use 
of  the  verb  we  express  action  in  referenco  to  periods  of 
time  when  it  is  performed. 

There  are  three  tenses,  or  divisions  of  time  ;  past,  pres- 
ent, and  future. 

Past  tense  applies  to  actions  which  are  accomplished  ; 
as,  I  wrote  a  book  ;  he  recited  his  lesson. 

Present  tense  denotes  actions  commenced,  but  not  fin- 
ished, and  now  in  operation  ;  as,  he  reads  his  book ;  we  sii 
on  our  seats  and  hear  the  lecture. 

Future  tense  refers  to  actions,  which  are  to  take  place 
hereafter  ;  as,  I  am  to  go  from  the  Institute  ;  we  desire  to 
learn  grammar  correctly. 

Every  body  can  mark  three  plain  distinctions  of  time, 
past,  present,  and  future.    With  the  past  we  have  been  ac- 


FUTURE  TENSE. 


201 


quainted.  It  has  ceased  to  be.  Its  works  are  ended.  The 
present  is  a  mere  line  — ,  nothing  as  it  were — which  is  con- 
stantly passing  unchecked  from  the  past  to  the  future.  It 
is  a  mere  division  of  the  past  and  future.  The  Hebrew, 
which  is  strictly  a  philosophic  language,  admits  no  present ; 
only  a  past  and  future.  We  speak  of  the  present  as  de- 
noting an  action  begun  and  not  finished.  In  the  summer, 
we  say  the  trees  grow,  and  bear  fruit.  But  when  the  fruit 
is  fallen,  and  the  leaves  seared  by  the  frost,  we  change  the 
expression,  and  say,  it  grew  and  bore  fruit. 

Of  the  future  we  can  know  nothing  definitely.  Heaven 
has  hung  before  all  human  eyes  an  impenetrable  veil  which 
obscures  all  future  events.  No  man  without  prophetic  vis- 
ion bestowed  by  Him  who  "  sees  the  end  from  the  begin- 
ning,"  can  know  what  is  to  be,  and  no  expression  can  be 
made,  no  words  employed  which  will  positively  declare  a 
future  action.  We  may  see  a  present  condition  of  thingSj 
and  from  it  argue  what  is  to  be,  or  take  place  hereafter  ; 
but  all  that  knowledge  is  drawn  from  the  past  and  deduced 
from  a  review  of  the  present  relation  and  tendencies  of 
things. 

I  hold  the  paper  near  the  fire  and  you  say  it  will  burn, 
and  you  say  truly,  for  it  has  a  will,  or  what  is  the  same,  an 
inherent  tendency  to  burn.  It  is  made  of  combustible  mat- 
ter, like  paper  which  we  have  seen  burn,  and  hence  we  ar- 
gue this  has  the  same  tendency  to  be  consumed.  But  how 
does  your  mind  arrive  at  that  fact  ?  If  you  had  never  seen 
a  substance  like  it  burn,  why  should  you  conclude  this  will? 
Does  the  child  know  it  will  burn  ?  No  ;  for  it  has  not  yet 
learned  the  quality  of  the  paper.  It  is  not  till  the  child  has 
been  burned  that  it  dreads  the  fire-    Suppose  I  take  some 


202 


ON  VERBS. 


asbestus,  of  the  kind  called  amianthus,  which  is  a  mineral, 
and  is  formed  of  slender  flexible  fibres  like  flax  ;  and  in 
eastern  countries,  especially  in  Savoy  and  Corsica,  is  man- 
ufactured into  cloth,  paper,  and  lamp  wicks.  It  was  used 
in  making  winding  sheets  for  the  dead,  in  which  the  bodies 
were  burned,  and  the  ashes,  retained  in  the  incombustible 
sheet,  were  gathered  into  an  urn,  and  revered  as  the  manes 
of  the  dead.  Suppose  I  take  some  of  this  incombustible 
paper  or  cloth  and  present  to  you.  You  say  it  will  burn. 
Why  do  you  say  thus?  Because  you  have  seen  other  ma- 
terials which  appear  like  this,  consume  to  ashes.  Let  us 
put  it  into  the  fire.  It  will  not  burn.  It  has  no  tendency 
to  burn  ;  no  quality  which  will  consume.  But  this  is  a  new 
idea  to  you  and  hence  your  mistake.  You  did  not  know 
it  ivould  burn,  nor  could  you  indicate  such  a  fact.  You  only 
told  your  opinion  derived  from  the  present  appearance  of 
things,  and  hence  you  made  an  assertion  in  the  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  added  to  it  an  infinitive  mood,  in 
order  to  deduce  the  consequence  of  this  future  action — it 
willSf  or  has  a  tendency  to  burn.  But  you  were  mistaken, 
because  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  things.  This  amianthus 
looks  like  flax,  and  to  a  person  unacquainted  with  it,  ap- 
pears to  be  as  truly  combustible  ;  but  the  mineralogist,  and 
all  who  know  its  properties,  know  very  well  that  it  W'ill  not 
— wills  nothing,  has  no  inclination,  or  tendency,  to  burn. 

Take  another  example.  Here  is  a  steel  needle.  I  hold 
it  before  you.  You  say,  "  if  I  let  go  of  it,  it  will  fall,"  and 
you  say  correctly,  for  it  has  such  a  tendency.  But  suppose 
a  magnet,  as  great  ar,  that  which  is  said  to  have  drawn  the 
iron  cof!in  of  Mohammed  to  the  roof  of  the  temple  at  Mec- 
ca, should  be  placed  in  the  room  above  us.  The  needle, 
instead  of  falling  to  the  floor,  would  be  drawn  in  the  nearest 


FUTURE  TENSE.  HOW  FORMED. 


203 


direction  to  that  magnet.  The  will  or  tendency  of  the 
needle,  as  generally  understood,  would  be  overcome,  the 
natural  law  of  gravitation  would  lose  its  influence,  by  the 
counteracting  power  of  the  loadstone. 

I  say,  "  I  will  go  home  in  an  hour."  But  does  that  ex- 
pression indicate  the  act  going  1  It  is  placed  in  the  indic- 
ative mood  in  our  grammars  ;  and  go  is  the  principal,  and 
will  the  auxiliary  verb.  May  be  I  shall  fall  and  die  before 
I  reach  my  home.  But  the  expression  is  correct ;  will  is 
present,  go  future.  I  will,  I  now  resolve,  am  now  inclined 
to  go  home. 

You  see  the  correctness  of  our  position,  that  we  can  not 
positively  assert  a  future  active  in  the  indicative  mood. 
Try  and  form  to  yourselves  a  phrase  by  which  it  can  be 
done.  Should  you  succeed,  you  would  violate  a  law  of  na- 
ture. You  would  penetrate  the  dark  curtain  of  the  future, 
and  claim  to  yourself  what  you  do  not  possess,  a  power  to 
declare  future  actions.  Prophets,  by  the  help  of  the  Al- 
mighty, had  this  power  conferred  upon  them.  But  in  the 
revelation  of  the  sublime  truths  they  were  instructed  to 
make  known,  they  were  compelled  to  adopt  human  lan- 
guage, and  make  it  agree  with  our  manner  of  speech. 

The  only  method  by  which  we  express  a  future  event,  is 
to  make  an  assertion  in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
and  to  that  append  the  natural  consequence  in  the  infinitive 
or  unlimited  ;  as,  I  am  to  go  to  Boston.  He  is  preparing  to 
visit  New-York.  The  infinitive  mood  is  always  future  to 
the  circumstance  on  which  it  depends. 

Mr.  Murray  says,  that  "tense,  being  the  distinction  of 
time,  might  seem  to  admit  of  only  the  present,  past,  and  fu- 
ture  ;  but  to  mark  it  more  accurately,  it  is  made  to  consist 
of  six  variations,  viz.  :  the  present,  imperfect,  perfect,  plu- 


204 


ON  VERBS. 


perfect,  first  and  second  future  tenses."  This  more  accurate 
mark,  only  serves  to  expose  the  author's  folly,  and  distract 
the  learner's  mind.  Before,  all  was  plain.  The  past,  pre- 
sent, and  future  are  distinct,  natural  divisions,  easily  under- 
stood by  all.  But  what  idea  can  a  person  fornn  of  an  im- 
perfect tense  in  action.  If  there  was  ever  such  an  action  in 
the  world,  it  was  when  grammarians  made  their  grammars, 
whiclT  is,  if  r  mistake  not,  according  to  their  own  authority, 
in  the  im-perfect  tense !  I  wrote  a  letter.  He  read  his 
piece  well.  The  scholar  learneiZ  and  recxied  his  lesson 
perfectly ;  and  yet  learned,  tho  made  perfect  by  the  qualifi- 
fication  of  an  adverb,  is  an  imperfect  action ! 

But  this  explains  the  whole  mystery  in  the  business  of 
grammar.  We  can  here  discover  the  cause  of  all  the 
troubles  and  difficulties  we  have  encountered  in  the  whole 
affair.  When  authors  made  their  books,  they  did  it  imper- 
fectly :  when  teachers  taught  them,  it  was  imperfectly ;  and 
when  scholars  learned  them,  it  was  imperfectly !  f  So  at 
last,  we  have  found  the  origin  of  this  whole  difficulty,  in  the 
grammars  themselves  ;  it  was  all  imperfectly  done. 

But  here,  again,  mirahile  dictuf  wonderful  to  tell,  we  are 
presented  with  a  plu-perfect  tense;  that  is, — plus  means 
more, — a  more  than  perfect  tense  !  What  must  that  be?  If 
a  thing  is  perfect,  we  can  not  easily  conceive  any  thing  be- 
yond. That  is  a  ne  plus  ultra  to  all  advancement — there 
can  be  no  more  beyond.  If  any  change  is  introduced,  it 
must  be  by  falling  from  perfect  back  to  imperfect. 

I  have  said,  "many  of  the  distinctions  in  the  grammar 
books  have  proved  mischievous ;  that  they  are  as  false  as 
frivolous and  this  is  said  perfectly,  in  the  perfect  tense. 
If  I  should  say,  "they  had  been  of  some  benefit,"  that  would 
be  more  than  perfect — plu-perfect.    But  when  I  say,  "  they 


TENSE. — SECOND  FUTURE. 


205 


exhibited  great  depth  of  research,  and  conveyed  some  Hght 
on  the  subject  of  which  they  treated,'^  it  would  all  be  im- 
perfect. 

Next,  we  are  presented  with  a  second  future  tense,  which 
attempts  a  division  of  time  unbounded  and  unknown.  In 
the  greek,  they  have  what  is  called  a  "paulopost  future^"* 
which  in  plain  english,  means  a  "  liUle  after  the  future 
that  is,  I  suppose,  when  futurity  has  come  to  an  end,  this 
tense  will  commence!  At  that  time  we  may  expect  to 
meet  a  prater  plus  quam  pcrfectumC'' — a  more  than  perfect 
tense  !  But  till  that  period  shall  arrive,  we  see  little  need 
of  making  such  false  and  unphilosophic  distinctions. 

A  teacher  once  told  me  that  he  explained  the  distinctions 
of  time  to  his  scholars  from  the  clock  dial  which  stood  in 
the  school  room.  Suppose  twelve  o'clock  represents  the 
present  tense  ;  nine  would  signify  the  perfect ;  any  thing 
between  nine  and  twelve  would  be  imperfect ;  any  thing 
beyond,  pluperfect.  On  the  other  hand,  any  act,  forward  of 
twelve,  would  be  future  ;  and  at  three  the  second  future 
would  commence.  I  remarked  that  I  thought  this  a  won- 
derful improvement,  especially  to  those  who  were  able  to 
have  clocks  by  which  to  teach  grammar,  but  that  I  could 
not  discover  why  he  did  not  have  three  future,  as  well  as 
three  past  tenses.  Why,  he  said,  there  were  no  such  tenses 
marked  in  the  books,  and  hence  there  was  no  occasion  to 
exp/am  tnem.  ^  asked  him  why  he  did  not  have  a  tense 
for  every  hour,  and  so  he  could  distmguis..  with  Mr.  Web- 
ster,  twelve  tenses,  without  any  trouble  whatever ;  and,  by 
going  three  times  round  the  dial,  he  could  easily  prove  the 
correctness  of  Dr.  Beattie's  division ;  for  he  says,  in  his 
grammar,  there  are  thirty-six  tenses,  and  thinks  there  can 
not  be  less  without  "  introducing  confusion  in  the  grammat- 

R 


206 


ON  VERBS. 


ical  ar^."  But  he  thought  such  a  course  would  serve  rather 
to  perplex  than  enlighten  ;  and  so  thought  I.    But  he  was 

the  teacher  of  a  popular  school  in  the  city  of  ,  and 

had  published  a  duodecimo  grammar  of  over  300  pages, 

entitled  "  Murray's  Grammar,  improved,  by  I 

will  not  give  his  name ;  it  would  be  libellous  ! 

Mr.  Murray  thinks  because  certain  things  which  he  as- 
serts,  but  does  not  prove,  are  found  in  greek  and  latin,  "  we 
may  doubtless  apply  them  to  the  english  verb  ;  and  extend 
the  principle  as  far  as  convenience,  and  the  idiom  of  our 
language  require."  He  found  it  to  his  "convenience"  to 
note  six  principal,  and  as  many  indefinite  tenses.  Mr.  Web- 
ster does  the  same.  Dr.  Beattie  found  it  "  convenient"  to 
have  thirty-six.  In  the  greek  they  have  nine.  Mr.  Bauzee 
distinguishes  in  the  french  twenty  tenses  ;  and  the  royal 
academy  of  Spain  present  a  very  learned  and  elaborate 
treatise  on  seven  future  tenses  in  that  language.  The  clock 
dial  of  my  friend  would  be  found  quite  "  convenienf^  in  aid- 
ing the  "  convenience"  of  such  distinctions. 

The  fact  is,  there  are  only  three  real  divisions  of  time  in 
any  language,  because  there  are  only  three  in  nature,  and 
the  ideas  of  all  nations  must  agree  in  this  respect.  In  fram- 
ing language  it  was  found  impossible  to  mark  any  other 
distinctions,  without  introducing  other  words  than  those  which 
express  simple  action.  These  words  became  compounded 
in  process  of  time,  till  they  are  now  used  as  changes  of  the 
same  verb.  I  would  here  enter  into  an  examination  of  the 
formation  of  the  tenses  of  greek,  latin,  french,  Spanish,  and 
german  verbs,  did  I  conceive  it  necessary,  and  show  you 
how,  by  compounding  two  words,  they  form  the  various 
tenses  found  in  the  grammars.  But  it  will  be  more  edify- 
ing to  you  to  confine  my  remarks  to  our  own  language. 


AUXILIARY  VERBS. 


207 


Here  it  wil!  be  found  impossible  to  distinguish  more  than 
three  tenses,  or  find  the  verb  in  any  different  form,  except 
by  the  aid  of  other  words,  wholly  foreign  from  those  that 
express  the  action  under  consideration. 

It  is  by  the  aid  of  auxiliary  verbs  that  the  perfect,  plu- 
perfect, or  future  tenses  are  formed.  But  when  it  is  shown 
you  that  these  are  principal  verbs,  and  like  many  other 
words,  are  used  before  the  infinitive  mood  without  the  word 
to  prefixed  to  them,  you  will  perceive  the  consistency  of 
the  plan  we  propose.  That  such  is  the  fact  we  have  abun- 
dant  evidence  to  show,  and  with  your  consent  we  will  intro- 
duce it  in  this  place.  I  repeat,  all  the  words  long  consid- 
ered  auxiliaries,  slyb  principal  verbs,  declarative  of  positive 
action,  and  as  such  are  in  extensive  use  in  our  language. 
We  can  hardly  agree  that  the  words  will,  shall,  may,  must, 
can,  could,  would,  should,  etc.  have  no  meaning,  as  our 
grammars  and  dictionaries  would  teach  us ;  for  you  may 
look  in  vain  for  a  definition  of  them,  as  principal  verbs, 
with  a  few  exceptions. 

The  reason  these  words  are  not  found  in  the  same  rela- 
tion to  other  words,  with  a  to  after  them,  is  because  they 
are  so  often  used  that  we  are  accustomed  to  drop  that  word. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  all  small  words  in  frequent  use  ; 
as,  hid,  do,  dare,  feel,  hear,  have,  let,  make,  see,  and  some- 
times needs,  tell,  and  a  few  others.  Bid  him  go.  I  dare 
say  so.  I  feel  it  move.  We  hear  him  sing.  Let  us  go. 
Make  him  do  it.  He  must  go  thro  Samaria.  Tell  him  do 
it  immediately. 

It  is  a  singular  fact,  but  in  keeping  with  neuter  verb  sys- 
tems,  that  all  the  neuter  verbs  as  well  as  the  active,  take 
these  auxihary  or  helping  verbs,  which,  according  to  their 


208 


ON  VERBS. 


showing  help  them  do  nothing — "  express  neither  actionn  or 
passion."    A  wonderful  help  indeed  ! 

Will.  This  verb  signifies  to  toish,  to  resolve,  to  exercise 
volition,  in  reference  to  a  certain  thing  or  action.  "  I  will 
go."  I  now  resolve  to  perform  the  act  of  going.  When 
applied  to  inanimate  things  incapable  of  volition,  it  signifies 
what  is  analogous  to  it,  inherent  tendency ;  as,  paper  will 
burn  ;  iron  will  sink ;  water  will  run.  All  these  things 
have  an  inherent  or  active  tendency  to  change.  Water  is" 
composed  of  minute  particles  of  a  round  form,  piled  togeth- 
er. While  on  a  level  they  do  not  move  ;  but  let  a  descent 
be  made,  and  these  particles,  under  the  influence  of  gravi- 
tation, will  change  position,  and  roll  one  over  xinother  with  * 
a  rapidity  equalled  to  the  condition  in  which  they  are 
placed.  The  same  may  be  observed  in  a  quantity  of  shot 
opened  at  one  side  which  will  run  thro  the  aperture ;  but 
the  particles  being  larger,  they  will  not  find  a  level  like 
water.  Grain,  sand,  and  any  thing  composed  of  small  par- 
ticles, will  exhibit  the  same  tendency.  Iron,  lead,  or  any 
mineral,  in  a  state  of  igneous  solution,  will  run,  has  the 
same  inclination  to  run  as  water,  or  any  other  liquid.  Id 
oil,  tallow,  and  lard,  when  expanded  by  heat,  the  same  ten- 
dency is  observed  ;  but  severely  chilled  with  the  cold,  it  con- 
geals, and  will  not,  has  no  such  tendency,  to  run. 

You  have  doubtless  observed  a  cask  filled  with  water 
and  nearly  tight,  (if  it  is  possible,  make  it  quite  so,)  and 
when  an  aperture  is  made  in  the  side,  it  will  run  but  a  trifle 
before  it  will  stop.  Open  a  vent  upon  the  top  of  the  cask 
and  it  will  run  freely.  This  will  or  tendency  was  counter- 
acted by  other  means  which  I  will  not  stop  here  to  explain. 

This  is  a  most  important  word  in  science,  physical  and 


AUXILIARY  VERBS.  WILL. 


209 


moral,  and  may  be  traced  thro  various  languages  where  it 
exerts  the  same  influence  in  the  expression  of  thought. 

"  To  avoid  multiplying  of  words,  I  would  crave  leave 
here,  under  the  word  action,  to  comprehend  Xhe forbearance 
too  of  any  action  proposed  ;  sitting  still,  or  holding  one's 
•peace,  when  walking  or  speaking  are  proposed,  tho  mere 
forbearances,  requiring  as  much  the  determination  of  the 
will,  and  being  as  often  weighty  in  their  consequences  as 
the  contrary  actions,  may,  on  that  consideration,  well  enough 
pass  for  actions  too.  For  he  that  shall  turn  his  thoughts 
inwards  upon  what  passes  in  his  mind  when  he  vnlls,  shall 
see  that  the  will  or  power  of  volition  is  conversant  about 
nothing." — Locke's  Essay,  b.  II.  c.  21.  §  30. 

It  is  correctly  applied  by  writers  to  matter  as  well  as 
mind,  as  may  be  seen  by  consulting  their  works. 

"  Meanwhile  as  nature  wills,  night  bids  us  rest." — Milton. 

The  lupulis,  or  common  \\o^,  feels  for  some  elevated  ob- 
ject  which  will  assist  it  in  its  high  aspirations,  and  will 
climb  it  by  winding  from  left  to  right,  and  will  not  be 
obliged  to  go  in  an  opposite  direction  ;  while  the  phaseolus, 
or  kidney  bean,  takes  the  opposite  direction.  Neither  will 
be  compelled  to  change  its  course.  They  will  have  their 
own  way,  and  grow  as  they  please,  or  they  will  die  in  the 
contest  for  liberty. 

Arsenic  has  a  tendency  in  itself,  a  latent  power,  which 
only  requires  an  opportunity  suited  to  its  objects,  when  it 
will  act  in  the  most  efficacious  manner.  It  will  destroy  the 
life  of  the  Emperor,  who  has  voluntarily  slain  his  thousand 
and  tens  of  thousands.  This  secret  power  does  not  reside 
in  the  flour  of  wheat,  for  that  will  not,  has  no  tendency,  to 
produce  such  disastrous  consequences. 

R* 


210 


ON  VERBS. 


This  word  is  applied  in  a  similar  manner  to  individuals 
and  nations.  The  man  will  fall,  not  of  intention,  but  of  ac- 
cident. He  mil  kill  himself.  The  man  will  drown,  and 
the  boat  will  swim.  The  water  will  hold  up  the  boat,  but 
it  will  allow  the  man  to  sink.  The  Russians  will  conquer 
the  Turks.  If  conquest  depended  solely  on  the  willy  the 
Turks  would  as  soon  conquer  as  the  Russians.  But  I  have 
not  time  to  pursue  this  topic  farther.  You  can  follow  out 
these  hints  at  your  leisure. 

Shall  signifies  to  be  bounds  oMigatedy  or  required^  from 
external  necessity.  Its  etymology  may  be  traced  back 
thro  various  languages.  It  is  derived  direct  from  the  saxon 
scaelan  or  scylan,  and  is  found  as  a  principal  verb  in  that 
language,  as  well  as  in  ours.  In  the  church  homily  they 
say,  "  To  Him  alone  we  schall  us  to  devote  ourselves  ;"  we 
hind  or  obligate  ourselves.  Chaucer,  an  early  english  poet, 
says, 

"  The  faith  we  shall  to  God." 

Great  difficulty  has  been  found  in  distinguishing  between 
shall  and  will,  and  frequent  essays  have  been  written,  lo 
give  arbitrary  rules  for  their  use.  If  the  words  were  well 
understood,  there  could  be  no  difficulty  in  employing  them 
correctly.  Will  signifies  inherent  tendency,  aptUude,  or 
disposition,  and  volition  in  beings  capable  of  using  it.  Shall 
implies  external  necessity,  or  foreign  obligation.  The  parent 
says,  "  You  will  suffer  misery  if  you  do  evil,"  for  it  is  in 
accordance  with  the  nature  of  things  for  evil  to  produce 
misery.  "  You  shall  regard  my  wishes,"  for  you  are  under 
obligation,  from  the  relation  in  which  you  stand  to  me,  to 
do  so.  Let  these  words  be  clearly  explained,  and  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  using  them  correctly. 


MAY.  MUST.— -CAN. 


211 


May,  past  tense  might.  This  verb  expresses  power ^ 
strength^  or  dbility  to  perform  an  action.  It  is  a  mistake 
that  it  means  permission  or  liberty  only.  It  implies  more 
than  that,  the  delegation  of  a  power  to  perform  the  contem- 
plated  action.  Suppose  the  scholar  should  faint,  would  the 
teacher  say  to  him  you  may  go  into  the  open  air  ?  He  has 
no  power,  mighty  or  strength,  communicated  by  such  liberty, 
and  must  receive  the  might  or  strength  of  others  to  carry 
him  out.  But  to  the  scholar  in  health  he  says  you  may  go 
out,  thereby  giving  to  him  a  power  and  liberty  sufficient  to 
perform  the  action.  This  is  done  on  the  same  principle 
that  one  man  gives  another  a  power  of  attorney"  to  trans- 
act his  business ;  and  that  power  constitutes  his  liberty  of 
action. 

Must  signifies  to  be  confined,  limited,  hound,  or  restrained. 
I  must,  or  am  bound,  to  obey ;  certain  obligations  require 
me  to  obey.  The  adjective  of  this  word  is  in  common  use. 
The  air  in  the  cask  is  musty.  It  has  long  been  hound  or 
confined  there,  and  prevented  from  partaking  of  the  purify- 
ing qualities  of  the  atmosphere,  and  hence  has  become 
musty. 

Can.  This  word  is  found  as  a  principal  verb  and  as  a 
noun  in  our  language,  especially  in  the  Scotch  dialect.  "  I 
ken  nae  where  he'd  gone."  Beyond  the  ken  of  mortals. 
Far  from  all  human  ken.  It  signifies  to  know,  to  perceive, 
to  understand.  I  knew  not  where  he  had  gone;  Beyond 
the  knowledge  of  mortals.  Far  from  all  human  reach. 
To  con  or  cun  is  a  different  spelling  of  the  same  word. 
Cunning  is  that  quick  perception  of  things,  which  enables  a 
person  to  use  his  knowledge  adroitly.  The  child  can 
read ;  knows  how  to  read.  It  can  walk.  Here  it  seems 
to  imply  power ;  but  power,  in  this  case,  as  in  most  others, 


212 


ON  VERBS. 


is  gained  only  by  knowledge,  for  knowledge  is  power. 
Many  children  have  strength  sufficient  to  walk,  long  before 
they  do.  The  reason  why  they  can  not  walk,  is,  they  do 
not  know  how;  they  have  not  learned  to  balance  them- 
selves in  an  erect  position,  so  as  to  move  forward  without 
falling. 

A  vast  proportion  of  human  ability  is  derived  from  knowl- 
edge. There  is  not  a  being  in  creation  so  entirely  incapa- 
ble of  self-support,  as  the  new-born  infant ;  and  yet,  by  the 
help  of  knowledge,  he  becomes  the  lord  of  this  lower  world. 
Bonaparte  was  once  as  helpless  as  any  other  child,  and  yet 
by  dint  of  can,  ken,  cunning,  or  knowledge,  he  made  all 
Europe  tremble.  But  his  knowledge  was  limited.  He  be- 
came blind  to  danger,  bewildered  by  success,  and  he  could 
no  longer  follow  the  prudent  course  of  wisdom,  but  fell  a 
sacrifice  to  his  own  unbridled  ambition,  and  blinded  folly. 
An  enlightened  people  can  govern  themselves;  but  power 
of  government  is  gained  by  a  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  equality,  and  mutual  help  and  dependency ;  and  when- 
ever the  people  become  ignorant  of  that  fact,  they  will  fall, 
the  degraded  victims  of  their  own  folly,  and  the  wily  influ- 
ence  of  some  more  knowing  aspirant  for  power. 

This  is  a  most  important  topic  ;  but  I  dare  not  pursue  it 
farther,  lest  I  weary  your  patience.  A  few  examples  must 
suffice. 

"Jason,  she  cried,  for  aught  1  see  or  can, 
This  deed,"  &c. — Chaucer. 

A  famous  man. 
Of  every  witte  somewhat  he  can, 
Out  take  that  him  lacketh  rule. 
His  own  estate  to  guide  and  rule. — Gower. 


DO.  HAVE. 


213 


Do  has  been  called  a  helping  verb ;  but  it  needs  little  ob- 
servation to  discover  that  it  is  no  more  so  than  a  hundred 
other  words.  "Do  thy  diligence  to  come  before  winter." 
"Do  the  work  of  an  evangelist." — Paul  to  Timothy.  I  do 
all  in  my  power  to  expose  the  error  and  wickedness  of  false 
teaching.    Do  afford  relief.    Do  something  to  afford  relief. 

Have  has  also  been  reckoned  as  an  auxiliary  by  the 
"helping  verb  grammars,"  which  has  no  other  duty  to 
perform  than  help  conjugate  other  verbs  thro  some  of  their 
moods  and  tenses.  It  is  a  word  in  very  common  use,  and 
of  course  must  possess  a  very  important  character,  which 
should  be  carefully  examined  and  distinctly  known  by  all 
who  desire  a  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  our  language. 

The  principal  difficulty  in  the  explanation  of  this  word, 
is  the  peculiar  meaning  which  some  have  attached  to  it.  It 
has  been  defined  to  denote  possession  merely.  But  when 
we  say,  a  man  has  much  property  destroyed  by  fire,  we  do 
not  mean  that  he  gains  or  possesses  much  property  by  the 
fire ;  nor  can  we  make  has  auxiliary  to  destroyed,  for  in 
that  case  it  would  stand  thus :  a  man  has  destroyed  much 
property  by  fire,  which  would  be  false,  for  the  destruction 
was  produced  by  an  incendiary,  or  some  other  means  wholly 
unknown  to  him. 

You  at  once  perceive  that  to  possess  is  not  the  only  mean- 
ing which  attaches  to  have.  It  assumes  a  more  important 
rank.  It  can  be  traced,  with  little  change  in  form,  back 
thro  many  generations.  It  is  the  same  word  as  heave, 
originally,  and  retains  nearly  the  same  meaning.  Saxon 
hahban,  Gothic  hahan,  German  hahen,  Latin  habeo,  French 
avoir,  are  all  the  same  word,  varied  in  spelling  more  than 
in  sound ;  for  h  in  many  languages  is  sounded  very  much 
like  V,  or  hv.    It  may  mean  to  hold,  possess,  retain,  sway, 


214 


ON  VERBS. 


control,  dispose  of,  either  as  a  direct  or  relative  action  ;  for 
a  man  sustains  relations  to  his  actors,  duties,  family,  friends, 
enemies,  and  all  the  world,  as  well  as  to  his  possessions. 
He  has  a  hard  task  to  perform.  He  has  much  pain  to  suf- 
fer.   He  has  suffered  much  unhappiness. 

I  have  written  a  letter.  I  have  a  written  letter.  I  have 
a  letter  written.  These  expressions  differ  very  little  in 
meaning,  but  the  verb  have  is  the  same  in  each  case.  By 
the  first  expression,  I  signify  that  I  have  caused  the  letter  to 
be  written ;  by  the  second  that  I  have  a  letter  on  which 
such  action  has  been  performed  ;  and  by  the  third,  that  such 
written  letter  stands  in  such  relation  to  myself. 

I  have  written  a  letter  and  sent  it  away.  Written  is  the 
past  participle  from  write ;  as  an  adjective  it  describes  the 
letter  in  the  condition  I  placed  it ;  so  that  it  will  be  defined, 
wherever  it  is  found,  as  my  letter ;  that  is,  some  way  related 
to  me. 

We  can  here  account  for  the  old  perfect  tense,  which  is 
said,  "  not  only  to  refer  to  what  is  past,  but  also  to  convey 
an  allusion  to  the  present  time.^^  The  verb  is  in  the  present 
tense,  the  participle  is  in  the  past,  and  hence  the  reason  of 
this  allusion.  I  have  no  space  allowed  me  to  go  into  a  full 
investigation  of  this  word,  in  its  application  to  the  expression 
of  ideas.  But  it  is  necessary  to  have  it  well  understood,  as 
it  has  an  important  service  entrusted  to  it ;  and  I  hope  you 
will  have  clear  views  presented  to  your  minds,  strong  enough 
to  have  former  errors  eradicated  therefrom. 

If  you  have  leisure  granted,  and  patience  and  disposition 
equal-ed  to  the  task,  you  have  my  consent  to  go  back  and 
read  this  sentence  over  again.  You  will  find  it  has  in  it 
embodied  much  important  information  in  relation  to  the  use 
of  have  and  the  perfect  tense. 


LECTURE  XIII. 


ON  VERBS. 

Person  and  number  in  the  agent,  not  in  the  action. — Similarity  of 
agents,  actions,  and  objects. — Verbs  made  from  nouns. — Irregu- 
lar verbs. — Some  examples. — Regular  Verbs. — Ed. — Ing. — Con- 
jugation  of  verbs. — To  love. — To  have. — To  be. — The  indicative 
mood  varied. — A  whole  sentence  may  be  agent  or  object. — Im- 
perative  mood. — Infinitive  mood. — Is  always  future. 

I  HAVE  said  before  that  action  can  never  be  known  sep- 
arate from  the  actor ;  that  the  verb  applies  to  the  agent  in 
an  acting  condition,  as  that  term  has  been  defined  and  should 
be  understood.  Hence  Person  and  Number  can  never  at- 
tach to  the  verb,  but  to  the  agent  with  which,  of  course,  the 
action  must,  in  every  respect,  agree;  as,  "  I  write. In 
this  case  the  action  corresponds  with  myself.  But  to  say 
that  write  is  in  the  "  first  person,  singular  number,"  would 
be  wrong,  for  no  such  number  or  person  belongs  to  the 
verb,  but  is  confined  to  myself  as  the  agent  of  the  action. 

The  form  of  the  verb  is  changed  when  it  agrees  with  the 
second  or  third  person  singular ;  more  on  account  of  habit, 
I  apprehend,  than  from  any  reason,  or  propriety  as  to  a 
change  of  meaning  in  the  word.  We  say,  when  using  the 
regular  second  person  singular,  "  thou  writest,^^  a  form  rare- 
ly  observed  except  in  addresses  to  Deity,  or  on  solemn  oc- 
casions. In  the  tliird  person,  an  s  is  added  to  the  regular 
form ;  as,  "  he  writes"    The  old  form,  which  was  in  gen- 


216 


ON  VERBS. 


eral  use  at  the  time  the  common  version  of  the  Bible  was 
pubhshed,  was  still  different,  ending  in  etii ;  as,  he  thinkethf 
he  writeth.  This  style,  altho  considerably  used  in  the  last 
century,  is  nearly  obsolete.  When  the  verb  agrees  with 
the  plural  number  it  is  usually  the  same  as  when  it  agrees 
with  the  first  person  ;  as,  "  We  write,  you  write,  they  write," 
There  are  few  exceptions  to  these  rules. 

Some  people  have  been  very  tenacious  about  retaining 
the  old  forms  of  words,  and  our  books  were  long  printed 
without  alteration  ;  but  change  will  break  thro  every  bar- 
rier, and  book-makers  must  keep  pace  with  the  times,  and 
put  on  the  dress  that  is  catered  for  them  by  the  public  taste  ; 
bearing  in  mind,  meanwhile,  that  great  and  practical  truths 
are  more  essential  than  the  garb  in  which  they  appear. 
We  should  be  more  careful  of  our  health  of  body  and  purity 
of  morals  than  of  the  costume  we  put  on.  Many  genteel 
coats  wrap  up  corrupt  hearts,  and  fine  hats  cover  silly 
heads.    What  is  the  chaff  to  the  wheat  ? 

Even  our  good  friends,  the  quakers,  who  have  particu. 
larly  labored  to  retain  old  forms — "  the  plain  language," — 
have  failed  in  their  attempt,  and  have  substituted  the  object 
form  of  the  pronoun  for  the  agent,  and  say,  "  thee  thinks," 
for  thou  thinkest.  Their  mistake  is  even  greater  than  the 
substitution  of  you  for  thou. 

So  far  as  language  depends  on  the  conventional  regula- 
tion of  those  who  use  it,  it  will  be  constantly  changing ; 
new  words  will  be  introduced,  and  the  spelling  of  old  ones 
altered,  so  as  to  agree  with  modern  pronounciation.  We 
have  all  lived  long  enough  to  witness  the  truth  of  this  re- 
mark. The  only  rule  we  can  give  in  relation  to  this  mat- 
ter  is,  to  follow  our  own  judgments,  aided  by  our  best  writ- 
ers  and  speakers. 


ACTORS,  ACTIONS,  OBJECTS. 


217 


The  words  which  express  action,  are  in  many  cases  very- 
similar  to  the  agents  which  produce  them  ;  and  the  objects 
which  are  the  direct  results  produced  by  such  action,  do 
not  differ  very  materially.    I  will  give  you  a  few  examples. 


Vprh 

Actors 

Act 

Actions 

Breathers 

Breathe 

Breath 

Builders 

Build 

Buildings 

Coiners 

Coin 

Coins 

Casters 

Cast 

Casts  or  castings 

Drinkers 

Drink 

Drink 

Dreamers 

Dream 

Dreams 

Earners 

Earn 

Earnings 

Fishers 

Fish 

Fishes 

Gainers 

Gain 

Gain 

Hewers 

TT 

Hew 

Hewings 

Innkeepers 

Keep 

Inns 

Light  or  lighters 

Light  or  shed 

Lights 

Miners 

Mine  or  dig 

Mines 

Pleaders 

Plead  or  make 

Pleas 

Producers 

Produce 

Products 

Raisers 

Raise 

Raisings  or  houses 

Runners  or  racers 

Run 

Runs  or  races 

Sufferers 

Suffer 

Sufferings 

Speakers 

Speak 

Speeches 

Thinkers 

Think 

Thoughts 

Writers 

Write 

Writings 

Workers 

Work 

Works 

I  give  you  these  examples  to  show  you  the  near  alliance 
between  actors,  (    ,)  and  actions ;  or  agents,  actions,  and  ob- 
jects.  Such  expressions  as  the  above  are  inelegant,  because 
s 


218 


ON  VERBS. 


they  are  uncommon  ;  but  for  no  other  reason,  for  we,  in 
numberless  cases,  employ  the  same  word  for  agent  and 
verb  ;  as,  painters  paint  buildings,  and  artists  paint  paintings; 
bookbinders  bind  books;  printers  print  books,  and  other 
prints.  A  little  observation  will  enable  you  to  carry  out 
these  hints,  and  profit  by  them.  You  have  observed  the 
disposition  in  children,  and  foreigners,  who  are  partially 
acquainted  with  our  language,  to  make  verbs  out  of  almost 
every  noun,  which  appears  to  us  very  aukward ;  but  was 
it  common,  it  would  be  just  as  correct  as  the  verbs  now 
used.  There  are  very  few  verbs  which  have  not  a  noun 
to  correspond  with  them,  for  we  make  verbs,  that  is,  we 
use  words  to  express  action,  which  are  nearly  allied  to  the 
agent  with  which  such  action  agrees.*    From  botany  we 

*  The  same  fact  may  be  observed  in  other  languages,  for  all  peo- 
ple form  language  alike,  in  a  way  to  correspond  with  their  ideas. 
The  following  hasty  examples  will  illustrate  this  point. 


English 

French 

Spanish 

Italian 

Latin 


Agent. 

Singers 

Les  chanteurs 

Los  cautores 

I  cantori 

Cantores 


Verb. 
Sing 


Object. 
Songs 

Les  chansons 
Las  cantinelas 
I  canti 
Cantus 

Gifts 
Les  dons 
Los  dones 
I  doni 
Dona 


Chantent 


Cantan 

Cantano 

Canunt 


English 

French 

Spanisli 

Italian 

Latin 


English 

French 

Spanish 

Italian 

Latin 


English 

French 

Spanish 

Italian 

Latin 


Givers 

Les  donneurs 
Los  donadores 
I  danatori 
Datores 


Fishers 
Les  pecheurs 
Los  Pescadores 
I  pescatori 
Piscatores 


Students 
Les  etudiens 
Los  estudiantes 
I  studienti 
Studiosi 


Fishes 
Les  poissons 
Los  peces 


I  pesci 
Pisces 


Studies 
Les  etudes 
Los  estudios 


I  studii 
Studia 


FORMATION  AND  CHANGES  OF  WORDS.  219 

have  made  botanize ;  from  Mr.  McAdam,  the  inventor  of  a 
particular  kind  of  road,  macadamize,  which  means  to  make 
roads  as  he  made  them.  Words  are  formed  in  this  way- 
very  frequently.  The  word  church  is  often  used  as  a  noun 
to  express  a  building  used  for  public  worship  ;  for  the  ser- 
vices performed  in  it ;  for  the  whole  congregation  ;  for  a 
portion  of  believers  associated  together  ;  for  the  Episcopal 
order,  etc.  It  is  also  used  as  a  verb.  Mr.  Webster  de- 
fines it,  "  To  perform  with  any  one  the  office  of  returning 
thanks  in  the  church  after  any  signal  deliverance."  But 
the  word  has  taken  quite  a  different  turn  of  late.  To  church 
a  person,  instead  of  receiving  him  into  communion,  as  that 
term  would  seem  to  imply,  signifies  to  deal  with  an  offend- 
ing member,  to  excommunicate,  or  turn  him  out. 

But  I  will  not  pursue  this  point  any  farther.  The  brief 
hints  I  have  thrown  out,  will  enable  you  to  discover  how  the 
meufjing  and  forms  of  words  are  changed  from  their  origi- 
nal application  to  suit  the  notions  and  improvements  of  after 
ages.  A  field  is  here  presented  which  needs  cultivation. 
The  young  should  be  taught  to  search  for  the  etymology 
of  words,  to  trace  their  changes  and  meaning  as  used  at 
different  times  and  by  different  people,  keeping  their  minds 
constantly  directed  to  the  object  signified  by  such  verbal 
sign.  This  is  the  business  of  philosophy,  under  whatever 
name  it  may  be  taught ;  for  grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  and 
the  science  of  the  mind,  are  intimately  blended,  and  should 
always  be  taught  in  connexion.  We  have  already  seen 
that  words  without  meaning  are  like  shadows  without  real- 
ities. And  persons  can  not  employ  language  "  correctly," 
or  "  with  propriety,"  till  they  have  acquainted  themselves 
with  the  import  of  such  language — the  ideas  of  things 


220 


ON  VERBS. 


signified  by  it.  Let  this  course  be  adopted  in  the  edu- 
cation of  children,  and  they  will  not  be  required  to  spend 
months  and  years  in  the  study  of  an  "  ari"  which  they  can 
not  comprehend,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  can  not 
apply  it  in  practice.  Grammar  has  been  taught  as  a  mere 
arty  depending  on  arbitrary  rules  to  be  mechanically  learned, 
rather  than  a  science  involving  the  soundest  and  plainest 
principles  of  philosophy,  which  are  to  be  known  only  as 
developed  in  common  practice  among  men,  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  permanent  laws  which  govern  human  thought. 

Verbs  differ  in  the  manner  of  forming  their  past  tenses, 
and  participles,  or  adjectives.  Those  ending  in  ed  are 
called  regular ;  those  which  take  any  other  termination  are 
irregular.  There  are  about  two  hundred  of  the  latter  in 
our  language,  which  differ  in  various  ways.  Some  of  them 
have  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  the  s?aiie  ;  as, 


Bid  Bid  Bid 

Knit  Knit  Knit 

Shut  Shut  Shut 

Let  Let  Let 

Spread  Spread  Spread,  etc. 

Others  have  the  past  tense  and  participle  alike,  but  dif- 
ferent  from  the  present ;  as. 

Lend  Lent  Lent 

Send  Sent  Sent 

Bend  Bent  Bent 

Wend  Went  Went 

Build  Built  or  builded  Built 

Think  Thought  Thought,  etc. 


EXAMPLES  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


221 


Some  have  the  present  and  past  tense  and  participle  dif- 


Blow 

iJlew 

Blown 

Grow 

Grew 

VjT  i  U  \V  H 

Begin 

Began 

Begun 

bee 

oaw 

Seen 

Write 

Wrote 

Written 

Give 

Gave 

Given 

Speak 

Spoke 

Spoken 

Rise 

Rose 

Risen 

Fall 

Fell 

Fallen,  etc. 

There  are  a  few  which  are  made  up  of  different  radicals, 
which  have  been  wedded  together  by  habit,  to  avoid  the 
frequent  and  unpleasant  recurrence  of  the  same  word  ;  as, 
Am  Was  Been 

Go  (wend)  Went  Gone,  etc. 

Some  which  were  formerly  irregular,  are  now  generally 
used  with  the  regular  termination,  in  either  the  past  tense 
or  participle,  or  both ;  as, 

Hang  Hung  or  hanged       Hung  or  hanged 

Dare  Dared  or  durst  Dared 

Clothe  Clad  or  clothed        Clad  or  clothed 

Work  Worked  or  wrought  Worked 

Shine  Shined  or  shone        Shone  or  shined 

Spill  Spilled  or  spilt         Spilt  or  spilled,  etc. 

The  syllable  ed  is  a  contraction  of  the  past  tense  of  do  ; 
as,  I  loved,  love  did,  did  love,  or  love-erf.    He  learned, 
learn  did,  did  learn,  or  learned.    It  signifies  action,  did, 
done,  or  accomplished.    You  have  all  lived  long  enough  to 
s* 


222 


ON  VERBS. 


have  noticed  the  change  in  the  pronounciation  of  this  sylla- 
ble. Old  people  sound  it  full  and  distinct ;  and  so  do  nnost 
others  in  reading  the  scriptures  ;  but  not  so  generally  as  in 
former  times.  In  poetry  it  was  usually  abbreviated  so  as 
to  avoid  the  full  sound  ;  and  hence  we  may  account  for  the 
irregular  termination  of  many  words,  such  as  heardy  for 
heared ;  past,  for  passed ;  learnt,  for  learned ;  huilt,  for 
huilded.  In  modern  poetry,  however,  the  e  is  retained,  tho 
sounded  no  more  than  formerly. 

Ing  is  derived  from  the  verb  to  he,  and  signifies  being, 
existing ;  and,  attached  to  a  verb,  is  used  as  a  noun,  or  ad- 
jective,  retaining  so  much  of  its  former  character  as  to 
have  an  object  after  it  which  is  affected  by  it ;  as,  "  I  am 
writing  a  lecture."  Here  writing,  the  present  participle  of 
write,  describes  myself  in  my  present  employment,  and  yet 
retains  its  action  as  a  verb,  and  terminates  on  lecture  as  the 
thing  written.  "  The  man  was  taken  in  the  act  of  stealing 
some  money."  In  this  case  stealing  names  the  action  which 
the  man  was  performing  when  detected,  which  action  thus 
named,  has  money  for  the  object  on  which  it  terminates. 

I  barely  allude  to  this  subject  in  this  place  to  give  you 
an  idea  of  the  method  we  adopt  to  explain  the  meaning  and 
use  of  participles.  It  deserves  more  attention,  perhaps,  to 
make  it  plain  to  your  minds  ;  but  as  it  is  not  an  essential 
feature  in  the  new  system,  I  shall  leave  it  for  consideration 
in  a  future  work.  Whoever  is  acquainted  with  the  forma- 
tion of  the  present  participle  in  other  languages,  can  carry 
out  the  suggestions  I  have  made,  and  fully  comprehend  my 
meaning. 

I  will  present  you  with  an  example  of  the  conjugations 
of  a  few  verbs  which  you  are  requested  to  compare  with 
the  "  might  could  would  should  have  been  loved''  systems. 


CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 


223 


which  you  were  required  to  learn  in  former  times.  You 
will  find  the  verb  in  every  form  or  position  in  which  it  ever 
occurs  in  our  language,  written  or  spoken. 

Conjugation  of  the  regular  verb  to  love. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Singular  Plural 

I  love  We  love 

Present  tense         Thou  lovest  You  love 

He,  she,  or  it  loves  They  love 

I  loved  We  loved 

Past  tense  Thou  lovedst  You  loved 

He,  she,  or  it  loved  They  loved 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Love. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
To  love. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  Loving  Past,  Loved 

The  irregular  verb  to  have,  is  thus  conjugated. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

I  have  We  have 

Present  tense         Thou  hast  You  have 

He  has  They  have 

I  had  We  had 

Past  tense  Thou  hadst  You  had 

He  had  They  had 


224 


ON  VERBS. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Have, 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
To  have. 

PARTICIPLES. 


Present,  Having  Past,  Had 

The  irregular  verb  to  be,  stands  thus  : 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

I  am  We  are 

Present  tense         Thou  art  You  are 

He  is  They  are 

I  was  We  were 

Past  tense  Thou  wast  You  were 

He  was  They  were 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Be. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
To  be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  Being  Past,  Been 

These  examples  will  suffice  to  give  you  an  idea  of  the 
ease  and  simplicity  of  the  construction  of  verbs,  and  by  a 
comparison  with  old  systems,  you  can,  for  yourselves,  de- 
termine the  superiority  of  the  principles  we  advocate.  The 
above  tabular  views  present  every  form  which  the  verb  as- 
sumes,  and  every  position  in  which  it  is  found.    In  use, 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


225 


these  words  are  frequently  compounded  together  ;*  but  with 
a  knowledge  of  the  above  principles,  and  the  meaning  of 
the  words — a  most  essential  consideration — you  will  always 
be  able  to  analyze  any  sentence,  and  parse  it  correctly.  I 
have  not  time  to  enlarge  on  this  point,  to  show  how  words 
are  connected  together.  Nor  do  I  think  it  necessary  to 
enable  you  to  understand  my  views.  To  children  such  a 
work  would  be  indispensable,  and  shall  be  attended  to  if  we 
are  able  to  publish  a  grammar  containing  the  simple  prin- 
ciples of  language. 

The  indicative  mood  is  varied  four  ways.  1st,  affirma- 
tively,  he  writes;  2d,  negatively,  he  writes  not;  3d,  inter- 
rogatively, does  he  write?  or  writes  he?  4th,  suppositively, 
if  he  writes,  suppose  he  writes,  allow  he  writes. 

The  Jirst  is  a  simple  affirmation  of  a  fact,  and  is  easily 
understood.  The  second  is  formed  by  annexing  a  term  to 
express  negation.  Not  is  a  contraction  from  nought  or 
naught,  which  is  a  compound  of  ne,  negative,  and  ought  or 
aught,  ne-aught,  meaning  no-thing.  He  writes  not;  he 
writes  nothing.  He  does  not  write ;  he  does  nothing  to 
write.  Neither  is  a  compound  of  ne  and  either,  not  either. 
He  can  not  read ;  he  can,  kens,  knows  nothing,  has  no 
ability  to  read. 

*Mr.  Murray  says,  "These  compounds,"  ham,  shall,  will,  may, 
can,  must,  had,  might,  could,  would,  and  should,  which  he  uses  as 
auxiliaries  to  help  conjugate  other  vevbs,  "  are,  however,  to  be  con. 
sidered  as  different  forms  of  the  same  verb."  I  should  like  to  know, 
if  these  words  have  any  thhig  to  do  with  the  principal  verbs  ;  if  they 
only  alter  the  form  of  the  verb  which  follows  them,  I  may,  can, 
must,  shall,  will,  or  do  love.  Are  these  only  different  forms  of 
love  ?  or  rather,  are  they  not  distinct,  important,  and  original  verbs, 
pure  and  perfect  in  and  of  themselves  ?  Ask  for  their  etymons  and 
meaning,  and  then  decide. 


226 


ON  VERBS. 


The  third  is  constructed  into  a  question  by  placing  the 
verb  before  the  agent,  or  by  prefixing  another  word  before 
the  agent,  and  then  placing  the  former  verb  as  an  infinitive 
afiier  it ;  as.  Does  he  write  ?  or  writes  he  ?  When  another 
verb  is  prefixed,  one  is  always  chosen  which  will  best  de- 
cide the  query.  Does  he  any  thing  to  write?  Does  h^ 
make  any  motions  or  show  any  indications  to  write  1  When 
the  will  or  disposition  of  a  person  is  concerned,  we  choose 
a  word  accordingly.  Will  he  write  ?  Has  he  the  icill  or 
disposition  to  write  ?  Can  he  write  ?  Is  he  able — knows 
he  how  to  write  ?  A  little  observation  will  enable  you  to 
understand  my  meaning. 

In  the  fourth  place,  a  supposition  is  made  in  the  impera- 
tive mood,  in  accordance  with  which  the  action  is  performed. 
"  If  ye  love  me,  keep  my  commandments."  Give,  grant, 
allow,  suppose  this  fact — you  love  me,  keep  my  command- 
ments. I  will  go  if  I  can.  I  resolve,  will,  or  determine  to 
go ;  if,  gif,  give,  grant,  allow  this  fact,  I  can,  ken,  know 
how,  or  am  able  to  go.  But  more  on  this  point  when  we 
come  to  the  consideration  of  contractions. 

In  this  mood  the  verb  must  have  an  agent  and  object, 
expressed  or  implied ;  as,  '^farmers  cultivate  the  soil.'' 
But  a  whole  sentence,  that  is,  an  idea  written  out,  may  per- 
form this  duty  ;  as,  "  The  study  of  grammar,  on  false  prin- 
ciples, is  productive  of  no  good."  What  is  productive  of  no 
good  ?  What  is  the  agent  of  is^.  "  The  study,'''*  our  books 
and  teachers  tell  us.  But  does  such  a  construction  give 
the  true  meaning  of  the  sentence  ?  I  think  not,  for  study  is 
indispensable  to  knowledge  and  usefulness,  and  the  study 
of  grammar,  properly  directed,  is  a  most  useful  branch  of 
literature,  which  should  never  be  dispensed  with.  It  is  the 
study  of  grammar  on  false  principles,  which  is  productive 


A  SENTENCE  MAY  BE  AGENT  OR  OBJECT.  227 

of  no  good.  You  discover  my  meaning,  and  will  not  ques- 
tion its  correctness.  You  must  also  see  how  erroneous  it 
would  be  to  teach  children  that  "  study  is  productive  of 
no  good."  The  force  of  the  sentence  rests  on  the  "false 
principles"  taught.  Hence  the  whole  statement  is  truly  the 
agent  of  the  verb. 

The  object  on  which  the  action  terminates  is  frequently 
expressed  in  a  similar  manner  ;  as,  "  He  wrote  to  me,  that 
he  will  adopt  the  new  system  of  grammar,  if  he  can  pro- 
^  cure  some  books  to  give  his  scholars  to  learn."  Will  you 
parse  wrote  7  Most  grammarifins  will  call  it  an  intransitive 
verb,  and  make  out  that  *'  he  wrote"  nothing  to  me,  because 
there  is  no  regular  objective  word  after  it.  Will  you  parse 
that  ?  It  is  a  "  conjunction  copulative.''^  What  does  it  con- 
nect ?  "  He  wrote"  to  the  following  sentence,  according  to 
Rule  18  of  Mr.  Murray  ;  "conjunctions  connect  the  same 
moods  and  tenses  of  verbs  and  cases  of  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns." Unluckily  you  have  two  different  tenses  connect- 
ed in  this  case.  Will  you  parse  if?  It  is  a  copulative  con- 
junction,  connecting  the  two  members  of  the  sentence — he 
will  adopt  if  he  can  procure  :  Rule,  as  above.  How  ex- 
ceeding unfortunate !  You  have  two  different  moods,  and 
two  different  tenses,  connected  by  a  copulative  conjunction 
which  the  rule  says  "  connects  the  same  moods  and  tenses ! 
What  nonsense  !  What  a  falsehood  !  What  a  fine  thing 
to  be  a  grammarian  !  And  yet,  I  venture  the  opinion,  and 
I  judge  from  what  I  have  seen  in  myself  and  others,  there 
is  not  one  teacher  in  a  hundred  who  will  not  learn  children 
to  parse  as  above,  and  apply  the  same  rule  to  it.  "  1  will 
go  if  I  caw."  "  I  do  and  will  contend."  "  As  it  was  in  the 
beginning,  is  now,  and  ever  shall  Z>e."  "  I  am  here  and  must 
remain."    "  He  z^Ji// iZo  your  business     he       time."  "I 


228 


ON  VERBS. 


am  resolved  to  expose  the  errors  of  grammar,  and  will  do  it 
thoroly  if  I  caw." 

In  these  examples  you  have  different  moods  and  tenses, 
indiscriminately,  yet  correctly  coupled  together,  despite  the 
rules  of  syntax  which  teach  us  to  explain  language  "  with 
propriety." 

That,  in  the  sentence  before  us,  is  an  adjective,  referring 
to  the  following  sentence,  which  is  the  object  oiwrotCf  or  is 
the  thing  written.  "  He  wrote  to  me  thai''*  fact,  sentiment, 
opinion,  determination,  or  resolution,  that  writing,  letter,  or 
word — "  he  will  adopt  the  new  system  of  grammar,  if  he 
can  procure  some  books." 

This  subject  properly  belongs  to  that  department  of  lan- 
guage called  syntax  ;  but  as  I  shall  not  be  able  to  treat  of 
that  in  this  course  of  lectures,  I  throw  in  here  these  brief 
remarks  to  give  you  some  general  ideas  of  the  arrangement 
of  words  into  sentences,  according  to  their  true  meaning,  as 
obtained  from  a  knowledge  of  their  etymology.    You  can- 
not fail  to  observe  this  method  of  constructing  language  if 
you  will  pay  a  little  attention  to  it  when  reading  ;  keeping 
all  the  time  in  view  the  fact  that  words  are  only  the  signs 
of  ideas,  derived  from  an  observation  of  things.    You  all 
know  that  it  is  not  merely  the  steam  that  propels  the  boat, 
but  that  it  is  steam  applied  to  machinery.    Steam  is  the 
more  latent  cause  ;  and  the  engine  with  its  complicated 
parts  is  the  direct  means.    In  the  absence  of  either,  the  boat 
would  not  be  propelled.    In  the  formation  of  language,  I 
may  say  correctly,  "  Solomon  built  the  temple  ;"  for  he 
stood  in  that  relation  to  the  matter  which  supposes  it  would 
not  have  been  built  without  his  direction  and  command. 
To  accomplisli  such  an  action,  however,  he  need  not  raise 
a  hammer  or  a  gavel,  or  draw  a  line  on  the  trestle  board. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


229 


His  command  made  known  to  bis  ministers  was  sufficient  to 
cause  the  work  to  be  done.  Hence  the  whole  fact  is  indi- 
cated or  declared  by  the  single  expression,  "  Solomon  built 
the  temple." 

The  Imperative  mood  is  unchanged  in  form.  I  can  say 
to  one  man,  go,  or  to  a  thousand,  go.  The  commander 
when  drilling  one  soldier,  says,  march;  and  he  bids  the 
whole  battalion,  march.  The  agent  who  is  to  perform  the 
action  is  understood  when  not  expressed ;  as,  go,  go  thou, 
or  go  you.  The  agent  is  generally  omitted,  because  the  ad- 
dress  is  given  direct  to  the  person  who  is  expected  to  obey 
the  instruction,  request,  or  command.  This  verb  always 
agrees  with  an  agent  in  the  second  person.  And  yet  our 
"  grammars  made  easy"  have  given  us  three  persons  in  this 
mood — "  Let  me  love  ;  love,  love  thou,  or  do  thou  love  ;  let 
him  love."  In  the  name  of  common  sense,  I  ask,  what  can 
children  learn  by  such  instruction?  "  Let  me  love,''*  in  the 
conjugation  of  the  verb  to  love  !  To  whom  is  this  command 
given  ?  To  myself  course  !  I  command  myself  to  "  let 
me  love  /"  What  nonsense !  "  Let  hirn  love."  I  stand 
here,  you  set  there,  and  the  third  person  is  in  Philadel- 
phia. I  utter  these  words,  "  Let  him  love."  What  is  my 
meaning  ?  Why,  our  books  tell  us,  that  the  verb  to  love  is 
third  person.  Then  I  command  him  to  let  himself  love  f 
What  jargon  and  falsehood  !  You  all  know  that  we  can 
address  the  second  person  only.  You  would  call  me  insane 
if  I  should  employ  language  according  to  the  rules  of  gram-' 
mar  as  laid  down  in  the  standard  books.  In  my  room 
alone,  no  person  near  me,  I  cry  out,  "  let  me  be  quieV* — im- 
perative mood,  first  person  of  to  be  !  Do  I  command  my- 
self to  let  myself  be  quiet  ?  Most  certainly,  if  be  is  the  prin- 
cipal verb  in  the  first  person,  and  let  the  auxiliary.  The 

T 


230  ON  VERBS. 

teacher  observes  one  of  his  pupils  take  a  pencil  fronn  a 
classniate  who  sets  near  hinn.  He  says,  "  let  him  have  it.^^ 
To  whom  is  the  comnaand  given?  It  is  the  imperative 
mood,  third  person  of  the  verb  to  have.  Does  he  command 
the  third  person,  the  boy  who  has  not  the  pencil  ?  Such  is 
the  resolution  of  the  sentence,  according  to  the  authority  of 
standard  grammars.  But  where  is  there  a  child  five  years 
old  who  does  not  know  better.  Every  body  knows  that  he 
addresses  the  second  person,  the  boy  who  has  the  pencil,  to 
Jet  the  other  have  it. 

Teachers  have  learned  their  scholars  the  Jirst  and  third 
persons  of  this  mood  when  committing  the  conjugation  of 
verbs  ;  but  not  one  in  ten  thousand  ever  adopted  them  in 
parsing.  "Let  me  love.^^  Let,  all  parse,  Mr.  Murray  not 
excepted,  in  the  second  person,  and  love  in  the  infinitive 
mood  after  it,  without  the  sign  to ;  according  to  the  rule, 
that  "  verbs  which  follow  hid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  needs, 
speak,^^  etc.  are  in  the  infinitive  mood.  It  is  strange  people 
will  not  eat  their  own  cooking. 

There  can  be  no  trouble  in  understanding  this  mood,  as 
we  have  explained  it,  always  in  the  future  tense,  that  is, 
future  to  the  command  or  request,  agreeing  with  the  second 
person,  and  never  varied  on  account  of  number. 

The  only  variation  in  the  infinitive  mood  is  the  omission 
of  to  in  certain  cases,  which  is  considered  as  a  part  of  the 
verb ;  tho  in  truth  it  is  no  more  so  than  when  used  in  the 
character  of  an  old  fashioned  preposition.  In  certain  cases, 
as  we  have  before  observed,  it  is  not  expressed.  This  is 
when  the  infinitive  verb  follows  small  words  in  frequent  use; 
as,  shall,  will,  let,  can,  must,  may,  bid,  do,  have,  make,  feel, 
hear,  etc. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


231 


This  mood  is  always  in  the  future  tense  ;  that  is,  it  is  fu- 
ture to  the  circunnstances  or  condition  of  things  upon  which 
it  depends ;  as,  they  are  making  preparations  to  raise  the 
building.  Here  to  raise  is  future  to  the  preparations,  for  if 
they  make  no  preparations,  the  buildings  will  not  be  raised. 
The  boy  studies  his  book  to  learn  his  lesson.  If  he  does 
not  study,  he  will  not  be  likely  to  learn  his  lesson. 

The  allied  powers  of  Europe  combined  their  forces  to 
defeat  Napoleon.  In  this  instance  the  whole  expression  is 
in  the  past  tense ;  nevertheless,  the  action  expressed  in  the 
infinitive  mood,  ivas  future  to  the  circumstance  on  which  it 
depended  ;  that  is,  the  defeat  was  future  to  the  combination 
of  the  forces.  Abraham  raised  the  knife  to  slay  his  son. 
Not  that  he  did  slay  him,  as  that  sentence  must  be  explained 
on  the  common  systems,  which  teach  us  that  to  slay  is 
in  the  present  tense ;  but  he  raised  the  fatal  knife  for  that 
purpose,  the  fulfilment  of  which  was  future ;  but  the  angel 
staid  his  hand,  and  averted  the  blow.  The  patriots  of  Po- 
land made  a  noble  attempt  to  gain  their  liberty.  But  they 
did  not  gain  it,  as  our  grammars  would  teach  us.  To  gain 
was  future  to  the  attempt,  and  failed  because  the  circum- 
stances indicated  by  the  event,  were  insufficient  to  produce 
so  favorable  a  result. 

No  person  of  common  discernment  can  fail  to  observe 
the  absolute  falsehood  of  existing  systems  in  respect  to  this 
mood.  It  is  used  by  our  authors  of  grammar  in  the  present 
and  past  tenses,  but  never  in  the  future.  Let  us  give  a 
moment  to  the  consideration  of  this  matter.  Take  the  fol- 
lowing example.  He  will  prepare  himself  next  week  to  go 
to  Europe.  Let  the  school  master  parse  ivill  prepare.  It 
is  a  verb,  indicative  moodi,  first  future  tense.  Next  week  is 
the  point  in  futurity  when  the  preparation  will  be  made. 


232 


ON  VERBS. 


Now  parse  to  go.  It  is  a  verb,  infinitive  mood,  present 
tense !  Then  he  is  already  on  his  way  to  Europe,  when 
he  is  not  to  prepare  himself  till  next  week  !  An  army  is 
collected  to  jight  the  enemy.  Is  the  fight  already  com- 
menced ?  To  jight  is  present  tense,  say  the  books.  We  shall 
study  grammar  next  year,  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  and  use  of  language.  Is  to  obtain  present  tense  ? 
If  so  there  is  little  need  of  spending  time  and  money  to  study 
for  a  knowledge  we  already  possess. 

"Hope  springs  eternal  in  the  human  breast; 
Man  never  is,  but  always  to  be  blest." — Pope. 

"  Who  was,  and  who  is,  and  who  is  to  come." — Bible.  It 
»  is  not  that  a  man  thinks  himself  already  in  possession  of  a 
sufficiency,  but  hopes  to  be  qualified,  etc. 

I  am  to  go  in  an  hour.  He  is  to  go  to-morrow.  I  am 
ready  to  hear  you  recite  your  lesson.  He  has  been  waiting 
a  long  time  to  see  if  some  new  principles  will  not  be  intro- 
duced. He  is  prepared  to  appear  before  you  whenever  you 
shall  direct.  We  are  resolved  to  employ  neuter  verbs,  po- 
tential and  subjunctive  moods,  im-perfect,  plu-perfect,  and 
second  future  tenses,  no  longer.  False  grammars  are  only 
fit-ted  to  be  laid  aside.  We  are  in  duty  bound  to  regard 
and  adopt  truth,  and  reject  error ;  and  we  are  determined  io 
do  it  in  grammar,  and  every  thing  else. 

We  are  not  surprised  that  people  cannot  comprehend 
grammar,  as  usually  taught,  for  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to 
make  error  appear  like  truth,  or  false  teaching  like  sound 
sentiment.  But  I  will  not  stop  to  moralize.  The  hints  I 
have  given  must  suffice. 


OBJECT  OF  THIS  WORK. 


233 


Much  more  might  be  said  upon  the  character  and  use  of 
verbs ;  but  as  these  lectures  are  not  designed  for  a  system 
of  grammar  to  he  taught,  but  to  expose  the  err6rs  of  existing 
systems,  and  prepare  the  way  for  a  more  rational  and  con- 
sistent exposition  of  language,  I  shall  leave  this  department 
of  our  subject,  presuming  you  will  be  able  to  comprehend 
our  views,  and  appreciate  their  importance.  We  have  been 
somewhat  critical  in  a  part  of  our  remarks,  and  more  brief 
than  we  should  have  been,  had  we  not  found  that  we  were 
claiming  too  much  of  the  time  of  the  Institute,  which  is  de- 
signed as  a  means  of  improvement  on  general  subjects. 
Enough  has  been  said,  I  am  sure,  to  convince  you,  if  you 
were  not  convinced  before,  why  the  study  of  grammar  is 
so  intricate  and  tedious,  that  it  is  to  be  accounted  for  from 
the  fact  that  the  theories  by  which  it  is  taught  are  false  in 
principle,  and  can  not  be  adopted  in  practice;  and  that 
something  ought  to  be  done  to  make  the  study  of  language 
easy,  interesting,  and  practical.  Such  a  work  is  here  at- 
tempted ;  but  it  remains  with  the  public  to  say  whether 
these  plain  philosophical  principles  shall  be  sustained,  ma- 
tured, perfected,  and  adopted  in  schools,  or  the  old  round- 
about course  of  useless  and  ineffectual  teaching  be  still 
preserved. 


LECTURE  XIV. 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 

A  temporary  expedient. — Words  not  understood. — All  words  must 
have  a  meaning. — Their  formation. — Changes  of  meaning  and 
form. — Should  be  observed. — Adverbs. — Ending  in  ly. — Exam- 
pies. — Ago. — Astray. — Awake. — Asleep. — Then,  when. — There, 
where,  here. — While,  till. — Whether,  together. — Ever,  never, 

whenever,  etc.  Oft. — Hence. — Perhaps. — Not. — Or. — Nor.  

Than.— As.— So.— Distinctions  false.— Rule  18.  If.  But. — 

Tho.— Yet. 

We  have  concluded  our  remarks  on  the  necessary  divis- 
ions of  words.  Things  namedy  defined  and  described,  and 
their  actions^  relations^  and  tendencies^  have  been  considered 
under  the  classes  of  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Verbs.  To 
these  classes  all  words  belong  when  properly  explained  ;  a 
fact  we  desire  you  to  bear  constantly  in  niind  in  all  your 
attempts  to  understand  and  employ  language.  But  there 
are  many  words  in  our  language  as  well  as  most  others, 
which  are  so  altered  and  disguised  that  their  meaning  is  not 
easily  comprehended.  Of  course  they  are  difficult  of  ex- 
planation. These  words  we  have  classed  under  the  head 
of  Contractions,  a  term  better  calculated  than  any  other  we 
have  seen  adopted  to  express  their  character.  We  do  not 
however  lay  any  stress  on  the  appropriateness  of  this  ap- 
pellation, but  adopt  it  as  a  temporary  expedient,  till  these 
words  shall  be  better  understood.  They  will  then  be  ranked 
in  their  proper  places  among  the  classes  already  noticed. 


WORDS  NOT  UNDERSTOOD. 


235 


Under  this  head  may  bo  considered  the  words  usually 
known  as  "  adverbs,  conjunctions,  prepositions,  and  inter- 
jections."  That  the  etynnology  and  meaning  of  these  words 
have  not  been  generally  understood  will  be  conceded,  I  pre- 
sume, on  all  hands.  In  our  opinion,  that  is  the  only  reason 
why  they  have  been  considered  under  these  different  heads, 
for  in  numberless  cases  there  is  nothing  in  their  import  to 
correspond  with  such  distinctions.  Why  "  an  adverb  ex- 
presses some  quality  or  circumstance  respecting  a  verb,  ad- 
jective, or  other  adverb ;"  why  "  a  conjunction  is  chiefly 
used  to  connect  sentences,  so  as  out  of  two  to  make  only  one 
sentence ;"  or  why  "  prepositions  serve  to  connect  words 
with  one  another,  and  show  the  relation  between  them,"  has 
never  been  explained.  They  have  been  passed  over  with 
little  difficulty  by  teachers,  having  b3en  furnished  with  lists 
of  words  in  each  part  of  speech,"  which  they  require  their 
pupils  to  commit  to  memory,  and  "  for  ever  after  hold 
their  peace"  concerning  them.  But  that  these  words  have 
been  defined  or  explained  in  a  way  to  be  understood  will 
not  be  pretended.  In  justification  of  such  ignorance,  it  is 
contended  that  such  explanation  is  not  essential  to  their 
proper  and  elegant  use.  If  such  is  the  fact,  we  may  easily 
account  for  the  incorrect  use  of  language,  and  exonerate 
children  from  the  labor  of  studying  etymology. 

But  these  words  have  meaning,  and  sustain  a  most  im- 
portant rank  in  the  expression  of  ideas.  They  are,  gener- 
ally, abbreviated,  compounded,  and  so  disguised  that  their 
origin  and  formation  are  not  generally  known.  Home 
Tooke  calls  them  "  the  wheels  of  language,  the  wings  of 
Mercury."  He  says  "tho  we  might  be  dragged  along 
witliout  them,  it  would  be  with  much  difliculty,  very  heavily 
and  tediously."    But  when  he  undertakes  to  show  that  they 


236 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


were  constructed  for  this  object,  he  mistakes  their  true  char- 
acter ;  for  they  were  not  invented  for  that  purpose,  but 
were  originally  employed  as  nouns  or  verbs,  from  which 
they  have  been  corrupted  by  use.  And  he  seems  to  admit 
this  fact  when  he  says,*  "  abbreviation  and  corruption  are 
always  busiest  with  the  words  which  are  most  frequently 
in  use.  Letters,  like  soldiers,  being  very  apt  to  desert  and 
drop  off  in  a  long  march,  and  especially  if  their  passage 
happens  to  lie  near  the  confines  of  an  enemy's  country." 

In  the  original  construction  of  language  a  set  of  literary 
men  did  not  get  together  and  manufacture  a  lot  of  words, 
finished  thro  out  and  exactly  adapted  to  the  expression  of 
thought.  Had  that  been  the  case,  language  would  doubtless 
have  appeared  in  a  much  more  regular,  stiff,  and  formal 
dress,  and  been  deprived  of  many  of  its  beautiful  and  lofty 
figures,  its  richest  and  boldest  expressions.  Necessity  is 
the  mother  of  invention.  It  was  not  until  people  had  ideas 
to  communicate,  that  they  sought  a  medium  for  the  trans- 
mission of  thought  from  one  to  another;  and  then  such 
sounds  and  signs  were  adopted  as  would  best  answer  their 
purpose.  But  language  was  not  then  framed  like  a  cotton 
mill,  every  part  completed  before  it  was  set  in  operation. 
Single  expressions,  sign-ificant  of  things,  or  ideas  of  things 
and  actions,  were  first  employed,  in  the  most  simple,  plain, 
and  easy  manner. f     As  the  human  mind  advanced  in 

*  Diversions  of  Purlcy,  vol.  1,  p.  77. 

t  Dr.  Edwards  observes,  in  a  communication  to  the  Connecticut. 
Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  from  personal  knowledge,  that  "  the 
Mohcgans  (Indians)  have  no  adjectives  in  all  their  language.  AI. 
tho  it  may  at  first  seem  not  only  singnlar  and  curious,  but  impossi- 
ble, that  a  language  should  exist  without  adjectives,  yet  it  is  an 
indubitable  fact."  But  it  is  proved  that  in  later  times  the  Indians 
employ  adjectives,  derived  from  nouns  or  verbs,  as  well  as  other 


FIRST  PRINCIPLES  SHOULD  BE  OBSERVED. 


237 


knowledge,  by  observing  the  character,  relations,  and  dif- 
ferences of  things,  words  were  changed,  altered,  compound- 
ed, and  contracted,  so  as  to  keep  pace  with  such  advance- 
ment; just  as  many  simple  parts  of  a  machine,  operating 
on  perfect  and  distinct  principles,  may  be  combined  together 
and  form  a  most  complicated,  curious,  and  powerful  engine, 
of  astonishing  power,  and  great  utility.  In  the  adaptation 
of  steam  to  locomotives,  the  principles  on  which  stationary 
engines  operated  were  somewhat  modified.  Some  wheels, 
shafts,  bands,  screws,  etc.,  were  omitted,  others  of  a  differ- 
ent kind  were  added,  till  the  whole  appeared  in  a  new  cha- 
racter,  and  the  engine,  before  fixed  to  a  spot,  was  seen 
traversing  the  road  with  immense  rapidity.  The  principles 
of  the  former  engine,  so  far  from  being  unessential,  were 
indispensable  to  the  construction  of  the  new  one,  and  should 
be  clearly  understood  by  him  who  would  build  or  use  the 
latter.  So,  in  the  formation  of  language,  simple  first  prin- 
ciples must  be  observed  and  traced  thro  all  their  ramifica- 
tions, by  those  who  would  obtain  a  clear  and  thoro  knowl- 
edge  of  it,  or  "  read  and  write  it  with  propriety." 

In  mathematics,  the  four  simple  rules,  addition,  subtrac- 
tion,  multiplication,  and  division,  form  the  basis  on  which 
that  interesting  science  depends.  The  modifications  of  these 
rules,  according  to  their  various  capabilities,  will  give  a 
complete  knowledge  of  all  that  can  be  known  of  numbers, 
relations,  and  proportions,  an  acme  to  which  all  may  aspire, 
tho  none  have  yet  attained  it.    The  principles  of  language 

nations.  Altho  many  of  their  dialects  are  copious  and  harmonious, 
yet  they  suffered  no  inconvenience  from  a  want  of  contracted  words 
and  phrases.  They  added  the  ideas  of  definition  and  description  to 
the  things  themselves,  and  expressed  them  in  the  same  word,  in  a 
modified  form. 


238 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


are  equally  simple,  and,  if  correctly  explained,  may  be  as 
well  understood.  But  the  difficulty  under  which  we  labor 
in  this  department  of  science,  is  the  paucity  of  means  to 
trace  back  to  their  orignal  form  and  meaning  many  words 
and  phrases  in  common  use  among  us.  Language  has  been 
employed  as  the  vehicle  of  thought,  for  six  thousand  years, 
and  in  that  long  space  has  undergone  many  and  strange 
modifications.  At  the  dispersion  from  Babel,  and  the 
"confusion  of  tongues"  occasioned  thereby,  people  were 
thrown  upon  their  own  resources,  and  left  to  pick  up  by 
piecemeal  such  shreds  as  should  afterwards  be  wove  into  a 
system,  and  adopted  by  their  respective  nations.  Wars, 
pestilence,  and  famine,  as  well  as  commerce,  enterprize, 
literature,  and  religion,  brought  the  different  nations  into 
intercourse  with  each  other ;  and  changes  were  thus  pro- 
duced in  the  languages  of  such  people.  Whoever  will  take 
the  trouble  to  compare  the  idioms  of  speech  adopted  by 
those  nations  whose  affairs,  civil,  political,  and  religious,  are 
most  intimately  allied,  will  be  convinced  of  the  correctness 
of  the  sentiment  now  advanced. 

In  the  lapse  gf  ages,  words  would  not  only  change  their 
form,  but  in  a  measure  their  meaning,  so  as  to  correspond 
with  the  ideas  of  those  who  use  them.  Some  would  become 
obsolete,  and  others  be  adopted  in  their  stead.  Many  words 
are  found  in  the  Bible  which  are  not  in  common  use ;  and 
the  manner  of  spelling,  as  well  as  some  entire  words,  have 
been  changed  in  that  book,  since  it  was  translated  and  first 
published  in  1610.  With  these  examples  you  are  familiar, 
and  I  shall  be  spared  the  necessity  of  quoting  them.  I  have 
already  made  some  extracts  from  old  writers,  and  may  have 
occasion  to  do  so  again  before  I  close  this  lecture. 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  CONTRACTIONS.  239 

The  words  which  we  class  under  the  head  of  Contrac- 
tions, are  so  altered  and  disguised  in  their  appearance,  that 
their  etynnology  and  connexion  are  not  generally  understood. 
It  may  appear  like  pedantry  in  me  to  attempt  an  investiga- 
tion into  their  origin  and  meaning.  But  to  avoid  that 
charge,  I  will  frankly  acknowledge  the  truth,  and  own  my 
inability  to  do  justice  to  this  subject,  by  offering  a  full  ex- 
planation of  all  the  words  which  belong  to  this  class.  I 
will  be  candid,  if  I  am  not  successful.  But  I  think  most  of 
the  words  long  considered  difficult,  may  be  easily  explained  ; 
enough  to  convince  you  of  the  feasibility  of  the  ground  we 
have  assumed,  and  furnish  a  sample  by  which  to  pursue  the 
subject  in  all  our  future  inquiries  into  the  etymology  of 
words. 

But  even  if  I  fail  in  this  matter,  I  shall  have  one  comfort 
left,  that  I  am  not  alone  in  the  transgression ;  for  no  philol- 
ogist, with  few  exceptions,  has  done  any  thing  like  justice 
to  this  subject.  Our  common  grammars  have  not  even 
attempted  an  inquiry  into  the  meaning  of  these  words,  but 
have  treated  them  as  tho  they  had  none.  Classes,  like 
pens  or  reservoirs,  are  made  for  them,  into  which  they  are 
thrown,  and  allowed  to  rest,  only  to  be  named,  without  be- 
ing disturbed.  Sometimes,  however,  they  are  found  in  one 
enclosure,  sometimes  in  another,  more  by  mistake,  T  appre- 
hend, than  by  intention ;  for  "  prepositions"  under  certain 
circumstances  are  parsed  as  "  adverbs,"  and  "  adverbs"  as 
"  adjectives,"  and  "  conjunctions"  as  either  "  adverbs"  or 
"prepositions;"  and  not  unfrequently  the  whole  go  off  to- 
gether, like  the  tail  of  the  dragon,  drawing  other  respec- 
table words  along  with  them,  under  the  sweeping  cognomen 
of  "adverbial  phrases,"  or  "  conjunctive  expressions  ;"  as, 
Can  you  write  your  lesson?    J^ot  yet  quite  well  enough. 


240 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


"  But  and  if  that  evil  servant,"*  etc.  Mr.  Murray  says, 
"the  same  word  is  occasionally  used  both  as  a  conjunction 
and  as  an  adverb,  and  sonnetinnes  as  a  preposition. 

Let  these  words  be  correctly  defined,  their  meaning  be 
ferreted  out  from  the  rubbish  in  which  they  have  been  en- 
closed ;  or  have  their  dismembered  parts  restored  to  them, 
they  will  then  appear  in  their  true  character,  and  their  con- 
nexion with  other  words  will  be  found  regular  and  easy.  Un- 
til such  work  is  accomplished,  they  may  as  well  be  called 
contractions,  for  such  they  mostly  are,  as  adverbs  or  any 
thing  else ;  for  that  appellation  we  regard  as  more  appro- 
priate than  any  other. 

In  the  attempts  we  are  about  to  make,  we  shall  endeavor 
to  be  guided  by  sound  philosophic  principles  and  the  light 
of  patient  investigation  ;  and  whatever  advances  we  may 
make  shall  be  in  strict  accordance  with  the  true  and  practi- 
cal use  of  these  words. 

Let  us  begin  with  Adverbs, 

I  have  not  time  to  go  into  a  thoro  investigation  of  the  mis- 
takes into  which  grammarians  have  fallen  in  their  attempts 
to  explain  this  "  part  of  speech."  Mr.  Murray  says  they 
"  seem  originally  to  have  been  contrived  to  express  compen- 
diously in  one  word,  what  must  otherwise  have  required  two 
or  more  ;  as,  "  he  acted  wisely. They  could  have  been 
"  contrived''^  for  no  such  purpose,  for  we  have  already  seen 
that  they  are  made  up  of  various  words  combined  together, 
which  are  used  to  express  relation,  to  define  or  describe 
other  things.  Take  the  very  example  Mr.  M.  has  given. 
Wisely  is  made  up  of  two  words  ;  wise  and  like.  "  He  acted 
wisely,"  wise-like.    What  did  he  act?    Wisely,   we  are 

*  Matthew,  chap.  24,  v.  48. 


ADVERBS  ENDING  IN  LY. 


241 


taught,  expresses  the  "  manner  or  quality"  of  the  verb  act. 
But  act,  in  this  case,  is  a  neuter  or  intransitive  verb,  and 
loisely  expresses  the  manner  of  action  where  there  is  none ! 
But  he  must  have  acted  something  which  was  loise  hke  some- 
thing else.  What  did  he  act  ?  If  he  produced  no  actions, 
how  can  it  be  known  that  he  acted  wisely  or  unwisely  ? 
Action  or  acts  is  the  direct  object  of  to  act.  Hence  the  sen- 
tence  fully  stated  would  stand  thus  :  "  He  acted  acts  or  ac- 
tions like  wise  actions  or  acts."  But  stated  at  length,  it  ap- 
pears aukward  and  clumsy,  like  old  fashioned  vehicles.  Wc 
have  modified,  improved,  cut  down,  and  made  eliptical,  all 
of  our  expressions,  as  we  have  previously  observed,  to  suit 
the  fashions  and  customs  of  the  age  in  which  we  live ;  the 
same  as  tailors  cut  our  garments  to  correspond  with  the 
latest  fashions. 

"  The  bird  sings  sweetly.^^  The  bird  sings  songs,  notes, 
or  tunes,  like  sweet  notes,  tunes,  or  songs.  The  comparison 
here  made,  is  not  in  reference  to  the  agent  or  action,  but  the 
object  of  the  action  ;  and  this  explains  the  whole  theory  of 
those  adverbs,  which  are  said  to  "  qualify  manner"  of  ac- 
tion. We  have  already  seen  that  no  action,  as  such,  can 
exist,  or  be  conceived  to  exist,  separate(.ed)  from  the  thing 
or  agent  which  acts  ;  and  such  action  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  the  changed  or  altered  condition  of  something 
which  is  the  object  of  such  action.  How  then,  can  any 
word,  in  truth,  or  in  thought,  be  known  to  qualify  the  action, 
as  distinct  from  the  object  or  agent?  And  if  it  does  not  in 
fact,  how  can  we  explain  words  to  children,  or  to  our  own 
minds,  so  as  to  understand  what  is  not  true  ? 

Hence  all  words  of  this  character  are  adjectives,  describ- 
ing one  thing  by  its  relation  or  likeness  to  another,  and  as 
such,  admit  of  comparison  ;  as,  a  likely  man,  a  very  likely 
u 


242 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


man,  a  likelier,  and  the  likeliest  man.  "  He  is  the  most 
likely  pedlar  I  ever  knew."  "  He  is  more  liable  to  be  de- 
ceived." "  A  lively  little  fellow."  "  He  is  worthless." 
He  is  worth  less,  less  worthy  of  respect  and  confidence.  "  He 
writes  very  correctly."  He  writes  his  letters  and  words 
like  very  correct  letters.  But  I  need  not  enlarge.  You 
have  only  to  bear  in  raind  the  fact,  that  ly  is  a  contraction 
of  like,  which  is  often  retained  in  many  words  ;  "as  godZz'Arr, 
christianZ/'Are,  etc.,  and  search  for  a  definition  accordingly; 
and  you  will  find  no  trouble  in  disposing  of  a  large  portion 
of  this  adverb  family. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  and  sliould  be  maturely  considered  by 
all  who  still  adhere  to  the  neuter  verb  theory,  that  adverbs 
qualify  neuter  as  well  as  active  verbs,  and  express  qual- 
ity or  manner  of  action,  where  there  is  none  !  Adverbs  ex- 
press "  manner  of  action"  in  a  neuter  verb  !  When  a  per- 
son  starts  wrong  it  is  very  difficult  to  go  right.  The  safest 
course  is  to  return  back  and  start  again. 

Adverbs  have  been  divided  into  classes,  varying  from 
eleven  to  seventy -two,  to  suit  the  fancies  of  those  who  have 
only  observed  the  nice  shades  of  form  which  these  words 
have  assumed.  But  a  bonnet  is  a  bonnet,  let  its  shape, 
form,  or  fashion,  be  what  it  may.  You  may  put  on  as 
many  trimmings,  flowers,  bows,  and  ribbons,  as  you  please  ; 
it  is  a  bonnet  still ;  and  when  we  speak  of  it  we  will  call  it 
a  bonnet,  and  talk  about  its  appendages.  But  when  it  is 
constructed  into  something  else,  then  we  will  give  it  a  new 
name. 

Adjectives,  we  have  said,  are  derived  from  cither  nouns 
or  verbs,  and  we  now  contend  that  the  words  formerly  re- 
garded as  adverbs  are  either  adjectives,  nouns,  or  verbs. 


ADVERBS.  AGO.  ASTRAY.  AWAKE.  243 

In  defence  of  this  sentinnent  wc  will  adduce  a  few  words  in 
this  place  for  examples. 

Ago.  "  Three  years  ago,  we  dwelt  in  the  country." 
This  word  is  a  past  participle  from  the  verb  ago,  meaning 
the  same  as  gone  or  a  gone,  and  was  so  used  a  few  centuries 
ago — a  gone,  or  gone  hrj. 

For  euer  the  latter  ende  of  ioye  is  wo, 
God  wotte,  worldly  ioye  is  soonc  agoy — Chaucer. 

"  For  if  it  erst  was  well,  tho  was  it  bet 

A  thousand  folde,  this  iiedeth  it  not  require 

Ago  was  euery  sorowe  and  euery  fere." 

Troyhis,  hoke  3,  p.  2. 
"  Of  such  examples  as  I  finde 
Upon  this  point  of  tyme  agonc 
I  thinke  for  to  tellen  one." — Gower,  lib.  5,  p.  1. 
*'  Which  is  no  more  than  has  been  done 
By  knights  for  ladies,  long  agone"—Hudibras. 
*'  Twenty  years  agone:'' — Tillotson^s  sermon. 
"  Are  all  the  go." — Knickerbocker. 

Astray.  "  They  went  astray."  Astrayed,  wandered 
or  were  scattered,  and  of  course  soon  became  estranged 
from  each  other.  Farmers  all  know  what  it  is  for  cattle 
to  stray  from  home  ;  and  many  parents  have  felt  the  keen 
pangs  of  sorrow  when  their  sons  strayed  from  the  paths  of 
virtue.    In  that  condition  they  are  astray-ed. 

'•  This  prest  was  drank  and  goth  astrayede." 

Achab  to  the  bottle  went. 
When  Benedad  for  all  his  shelde 
Him  slough,  so  that  upon  the  felde 
His  people  goth  aboute  astraie." — Gower. 

Awake.  "Heisawa^e."  ^'^  Samson  awaked  out  of  his 
sleep."    "  That  I  may  awake  him  out  of  sleep,"    '*  It  is 


244 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


high  time  to  awake:'    "  As  a  man  that  is  wakened  out  ot" 
sleep."    The  Irish  hold  a  wake — they  do  not  sleep  the  night 
after  the  loss  of  friends. 
Asleep. 

"  When  that  pyte,  which  longe  on  sleep  doth  tary 
Hath  set  the  fyne  of  al  my  heuynesse." 

Chaucer,  La  belle  dame,  p.  \.  c.  \. 

"  Ful  sound  on  sleep  did  caucht  thare  rest  be  kind." 

Douglas,  b.  9,  p.  283. 

"  In  these  provynces  the  fayth  of  Chryste  was  all 
quenchyd  and  in  sleepe"— Fabian. 

A  numerous  portion  of  these  contractions  are  nouns, 
which,  from  their  frequent  recurrence,  are  used  without 
their  usual  connexion  with  small  words.  The  letter  a  is 
compounded  with  many  of  these  words,  which  may  have 
been  joined  to  them  by  habit,  or  as  a  preposition,  meanint,'- 
on,  tOj  at,  in,  as  it  is  used  in  the  french  and  some  other  lan- 
guages. You  often  hear  expressions  like  these,  "  he  is  a- 
going  ;  he  is  rt-writing ;  he  began  a-new,"  etc.  The  old 
adverbs  which  take  this  letter,  you  can  easily  analyze  ;  as, 
"  The  house  is  a-fire" — on  fire  ;  "  He  fell  a-sleep" — he  fell 
on  sleep.  "  When  deep  sleep  falleth  on  men." — Job.  He 
stept  «-side" — on  one  side.  "  He  came  a-board" — on  board. 
"  They  put  it  a-foot" — on  foot.  "  He  went  a-way" — a  way, 
followed  some  course,  to  a  distance.  "  Blue  bonnets  are  all 
the  go  now  a-days,"  etc. 

The  following  extracts  will  give  you  an  idea  of  the  ety- 
mology of  these  words  : 

"  Turnus  seyes  the  Troianis  in  grete  yre, 
And  al  thare  schyppis  and  navy  set  in  fire" 

Douglas,  b.  9,  p.  274. 


ADVERBS  OF  PLACE  AND  TIME. 


245 


«'  Now  hand  in  hand  the  dynt  lichlis  with  ane  swak. 

Now  bendis  he  up  his  bourdon  with  anc  mynt. 

On  side  (a-side)  he  bradis  for  to  eschew  the  dynt." — Idem. 

"  That  easter  fire  and  flame  aboute 

Both  at  mouth  and  at  nase 

So  that  thei  setten  all  on  feZasre,"  (ablaze.) — Gower. 

"  And  tyl  a  wicked  deth  him  take 

Him  had  leuer  asondre  (a-sunder)  shake 

And  let  al  his  lymmes  asondre  ryue 

Thane  leaue  his  richesse  in  his  lyue." — Chaucer. 

Examples  of  this  kind  might  be  multiplied  to  an  indefinite 
length.  But  the  above  will  suffice  to  give  you  an  idea  of 
the  former  use  of  these  words,  and  also,  by  comparison  with 
the  present,  of  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the 
method  of  spelling  within  a  few  centuries. 

A  large  portion  of  adverbs  relate  to  time  and  place,  be- 
cause many  of  our  ideas,  and  much  of  our  language,  are 
employed  in  reference  to  them  ;  as,  then,  when,  ivhere,  there, 
here,  hence,  whence,  thence,  while,  till,  lohether,  etc.  These 
are  compound  words  considerably  disguised  in  their  mean- 
ing and  formation.    Let  us  briefly  notice  some  of  them. 

Per  annum  is  a  latin  phrase,  for  the  year,  a  year  ;  and 
the  annum  is  the  year,  round  or  period  of  time,  from  which 
it  was  corrupted  gradually  into  its  present  shape.  Thanne, 
tha  anne,  thane,  thenne,  then,  than,  are  different  forms  of  the 
same  word. 

"We  see  nowe  bi  a  mirror  in  darcnesse  :  thanne  for- 
sathe,  face  to  face.  Nowe  I  know  of  partye  ;  thanne  for- 
sathe  schal  know  as  I  am  knowen." — 1.  Cor.  13  :  12. 
Translation  in  1350. 

I  have  a  translation  of  the  same  passage  in  1586,  which 
stands  thus:  "  For  nowe  we  see  through  a  glasse  darkley  : 
but  thene  face  to  face  :  now  I  know  in  part :  but  then  shal 
u 


246 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


I  know  even  as  I  am  knowen."  Here  several  words  are 
spelled  differently  in  the  same  verse. 

Then,  the  anne,  that  time.  When,  wlia  amie,  "  wha-icht- 
anne,^^  which,  or  what  anne,  period  of  time. 

Area  means  an  open  space,  a  plat  of  ground,  a  spot  or 
place.  Arena  is  from  the  same  etymon,  altered  in  applica- 
tion. There,  the  area,  the  place  or  spot.  "  If  we  go  there,^^ 
to  that  place.  Where,  which,  or  what  ("  wha-icht  area") 
place.  Here,  his  (latin  word  for  this.)  area,  this  place. 
These  words  refer  to  place,  state,  or  condition. 

While  is  another  spelling  for  wheel.  "  To  while  away 
our  time,"  is  to  spend,  or  wheel  it  away.  While  ap- 
plies to  the  period,  or  space  of  time,  in  which  something 
wheels,  whirls,  turns  round,  or  transpires ;  as,  "  You  had 
better  remain  here  ivhilc  (during  the  time)  he  examines 
whether  it  is  prudent  for  you  to  go." 

Till  is  to  iiMle,  to  the  period  at  which  something  is  ex- 
pected to  follow.  "  If  I  will  that  he  tarry  till  (to  the  time) 
I  come  what  is  that  to  thee  ?" 

The  idea  of  time  and  place  are  often  blended  together. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  lads  and  professed  scholars,  in 
some  parts  of  our  country  say  "  down  till  the  bottom,  over 
till  the  woods."  etc.  Altho  we  do  not  regard  such  expres- 
sions  correct,  yet  they  serve  to  explain  the  meaning  of.  the 
word.  The  only  mistake  is  in  applying  it  to  place  instead 
of  time. 

Whether  is  lohich  either.  "  Shew  whether  of  these  two 
thou  hast  chosen." — Acts  1:24.  It  is  more  frequently  ap- 
plied  in  modern  times  to  circumstance  and  events  than  to 
persons  and  things.  "  I  will  let  you  know  whether  I  vnll 
or  will  not  adopt  it,"  one  or  the  other* 


EVER.  OFT.  HENCE.  NOT. 


247 


Together  signifies  two  or  more  united.    Gethered  is  the 
past  participle  of  gather. 

As  Mailie,  an'  her  lambs  tkegither, 

Were  ae  day  nibbling  on  the  tether." — Burns. 

Ever  means  ti7ne,  age,  period.  It  originally  and  essen- 
tially signified  life.  For  ever  is  for  the  age  or  period.  For 
ever  and  ever,  to  the  ages  of  ages.  Ever-lasting  is  age- 
lasting.    Ever-lasting  hills,  snows,  landmarks,  etc. 

Never,  ne-evcr,  not  ever,  at  no  time,  age  or  period. 

When-ever. — At  what  point  or  space  of  time  or  age. 

What-ever. — What  thing,  fact,  circumstance,  or  event. 

Where-ever. — To,  at,  or  in  what  place,  period,  age,  or 
time. 

Whither-so-ever,  which-way-so-ever,  where-so-ever, 
never-the-less,  etc.  need  only  be  analyzed,  and  their  mean- 
ing will  appear  obvious  to  all. 

Oft,  often,  oft-times,  often-times,  can  be  understood  by 
all,  because  the  noun  to  which  they  belong  is  oft-en  retained 
in  practice. 

Once,  twice,  at  one  time,  two  times. 

Hence,  thence,  whence,  from  this,  that,  or  wliat,  place, 
spot,  circumstance,  post,  or  starting  place. 

Hence-for-ward,  henceforth,  in  time  to  come,  after  this 
period. 

Here-after,  after  this  era,  or  present  time. 

Hither,  to  this  spot  or  place.  Thiihey,  to  that  place. 
Hither-to,  hither-ward,  etc.  the  same  as  to  you  ward,  or  to 
God  ward,  still  retained  in  our  bibles. 

Per-haps,  it  may  hap.  Perchance,  peradventure,  by 
chance,  by  adventure.    The  latin  per  means  by. 

Not,  no  ought,  not  any,  nothing.  It  is  a  compound  of 
ne  and  ought  or  aught.  m 


248 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


Or  is  a  contraction  from  other,  and  nor  from  ne-or,  no-or, 
no  other. 

No-wise,  no  ways.  I  will  go,  or,  other-wise,  in  another 
way  or  manner,  you  must  go. 

Than,  the  ane,  the  one,  that  one,  alluding  to  a  particular 
object  with  which  a  comparison  is  made ;  as.  This  book  is 
larger  than  that  bible.  That  one  bible,  this  book  is  larger. 
It  is  always  used  with  the  comparative  degree,  to  define 
particularly  the  object  with  which  the  comparison  is  made. 
Talent  is  better  than  flattery.  Than  flattery,  often  bestowed 
regardless  of  merit,  talent  is  better. 

As  is  an  adjective  in  extensive  use.  It  means  the,  this, 
that,  these,  the  same,  etc.  It  is  a  defining  word  of  the  first 
kind.  You  practice  as  you  have  been  taught — the  same 
duties  or  principles  understood.  We  use  language  as  we 
have  learned  it ;  in  the  same  way  or  manner.  It  is  often 
associated  with  other  words  to  particularly  specify  the  way, 
manner,  or  degree,  in  which  something  is  done  or  compared. 
I  can  go  as  well  as  you.  In  the  same  well,  easy,  convenient 
way  or  manner  you  can  go,  I  can  go  in  the  same  way.  He 
was  as  learned,  as  pious,  as  benevolent,  as  brave,  as  faithful, 
as  ardent.  These  are  purely  adjectives,  used  to  denote  the 
degree  of  the  likeness  or  similarity  between  the  things  com- 
pared. Secondary  words  are  often  added  to  this,  to  aid  the 
distinction  or  definition  ;  as,  (the  same  illustrated,)  He  is  just 
as  willing.  I  am  quite  as  well  pleased  without  it.  As,  like 
many  other  adjectives,  often  occurs  without  a  noun  ex- 
pressed, in  which  case  it  was  formerly  parsed  by  Murray 
himself  «5  (like,  or  the  same)  a  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  "And 
indeed  it  seldom  at  any  period  extends  to  the  tip,  as  happens 
in  acute  diseases." — Dr.  Sweetster,  "  The  ground  I  have 
assumed  is  tenable,  as  will  appear.^* — Webster.  "Bona- 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


249 


parte  had  a  special  motive  in  decorating  Paris,  for  '  Paris 
is  France,  as  has  oCton  been  observed." — Channing.  "Tlie 
words  are  such  as  seem.^'' — Murray^s  Reader!  p.  16,  intro. 

So  has  nearly  the  same  signification  as  the  word  last 
noticed,  and  is  frequently  used  along  with  it,  to  define 
the  other  member  of  the  comparison.  As  fartas  I  can  un- 
derstand,  so  far  I  approve.  As  he  directed,  so  I  obeyed. 
It  very  often  occurs  as  a  secondary  adjective  ;  as,  "  In  pious 
and  benevolent  offices  so  simple,  so  minute,  so  steady,  so 
habitual,  that  they  will  carry,"  etc.  "  He  pursued  a  course 
so  unvarying." — Channing. 

These  words  are  the  most  important  of  any  small  ones  in 
our  vocabulary,  because  {for  this  cause,  be  this  the  cause, 
this  is  the  cause)  they  are  the  most  frequently  used ;  and 
yet  there  are  no  words  so  little  understood,  or  so  much 
abused  by  grammarians,  as  these  are. 

We  have  barely  time  to  notice  the  remaining  parts  of 
speech.  "  Conjunctions"  are  defined  to  be  a  "  part  of  speech 
void  of  signification,  but  so  formed  as  to  help  signification, 
by  making  two  or  more  significant  sentences  to  be  one  sig- 
nificant sentence."  Mr.  Harris  gives  about  forty  "species." 
Murray  admits  of  only  the  dis-juncUvQ  and  copulative,  and 
reduces  the  whole  list  of  words  to  twenty-four.  But  what 
is  meant  by  a  rZ?5-junctive  co/i-junctive  word,  is  left  for  you 
to  determine.  It  must  be  in  keeping  with  mdefinite  defining 
articles,  and  posl-^osiUvo  _pre.positions.  He  says,  "  it  joins 
words,  but  disjoins  the  sense."*  And  what  is  a  word  with  out 

*  Examples  of  a  fZi>-junctive  conjunction.  "  They  came  with  her, 
but  they  went  without  her." — Murray. 

Murray  is  vyroug,  and  Cardell  is  right.  The  simplifiers  are 
wrong,  hut  their  standard  is  so  likewise. 

"  Me  he  restored  to  my  office,  and  him  he  hanged." — Pharaoh' .9 
Letter. 


250 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


sense,'^  pray  tell  us  ?  If  "  words  arc  the  signs  of  ideas," 
how,  in  the  name  of  reason,  can  you  give  the  sign  and  sep- 
arate the  sense?  You  can  as  well  separate  the  shadow  from 
the  substance,  or  a  quality  from  matter. 

We  have  already  noticed  Rule  18,  which  teaches  the  use 
of  conjunctions.  Under  that  rule,  you  may  examine  these  ex- 
amples. "  As  it  teas  in  the  beginning,  is  now,  and  ever  sJiall 
be." — Common  Prayer.  "What  I  do,  have  done,  or  may  here- 
after do,  has  been,  and  iclll  always  be  matter  of  inclination, 
the  gratifying  of  which  pays  itself:  and  I  have  no  more  merit 
in  employing  my  time  and  money  in  the  way  I  am  known 
to  do,  than  another  has  in  other  occupations." — Hoicard, 

The  following  examples  must  suffice. 

If.  This  word  is  derived  from  the  saxon  gifan,  and  was 
formerly  written  giff,  gyff,  gif,  geve,  give,  yiff,  yef,  yeve.  It 
signifies  give,  grant,  allow,  suppose,  admit,  and  is  always  a 
verb  in  the  imperative  mood,  having  the  following  sentence 
or  idea  for  its  object.  "  i/*a  pound  of  sugar  cost  ten  cents, 
what  will  ten  pounds  cost?"  G/i-e,  grant,  allow,  suppose, 
(the  fact,)  one  pound  cost,  etc.  In  this  case  the  supposition 
which  stands  as  a  predicate — one  pound  of  sugar  cost  ten 
cents,  is  the  object  of  if — tlie  thing  to  be  allowed,  supposed, 
or  granted,  and  from  which  the  conclusion  as  to  the  cost  of 
ten  pounds  is  to  be  drawn. 

"He  will  assist  us  if  he  has  the  means."  Allow,  admit, 
(the  fact,)  he  has  the  means,  lis  w^ill  assist  us. 

"  Gif  luf  be  vertew,  than  is  it  leful  thing ; 

Gif  it  be  vice,  it  is  your  undoing." — Douglas  p.  95. 

"Ne  I  ne  wol  non  rehcrcc,  yef  that  I  may." — Chaucer. 

*•  She  was  so  charitable  and  so  pytous 

She  wolde  wepe  yf  that  she  sawe  a  mous 

Cauglit  in  a  trappe,  if  it  were  deed  or  bledde." — Prioresse. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  IF.  BUT.  AND 


251 


"  O  haste  and  come  to  my  master  dear." 
"  Gin  ye  be  Barbara  Allen," — Burns. 

But.  This  word  has  two  opposite  significations.  It  is 
derived  from  two  different  radicals.  But,  from  the  saxon 
be  and  utan,  out,  means  be  out,  leave  out,  save,  except,  omit  ,as, 
"  all  but  one  are  here."    Leave  out,  except,  one,  all  are  here. 

"  Heaven  from  all  creation  hides  the  book  of  fate 
All  but  (save,  except)  the  page  prescribed  our  present  state." 
"  When  nought  but  (leave  out)  the  torrent  is  heard  on  the  hill, 
And  nought  but  (save)  the  nightingale's  song  in  the  grove." 

"  Nothing  but  fear  restrains  him."  In  these  cases  the 
direct  objects  of  the  verb,  the  things  to  be  omitted  are  ex- 
pressed. 

But  is  also  derived  from  botan,  which  signifies  to  add, 
superadd,  join  or  unite  ;  as,  in  the  old  form  of  a  deed,  *'  it 
is  butted  and  bounded  as  follows."  Two  animals  biitt  their 
heads  together.  The  butt  of  a  log  is  that  end  which  was 
joined  to  the  stump.  A  butt,  butment  or  a-butment  is  the 
joined  end,  where  there  is  a  connexion  with  something  else. 
A  butt  of  ridicule  is  an  object  to  which  ridicule  is  attached. 

Not  only  saw  he  all  that  was, 

But  (add)  much  that  never  came  to  pass." — M'Fingal. 

To  button,  butt'On,  is  derived  from  the  same  word,  to  join 
one  side  to  the  other,  to  fasten  together.  It  was  formerly 
spelled  botan,  booie,  bote,  lot,  butte,  bute,  but.  It  is  still 
spelled  boot  in  certain  cases  as  a  verb  ;  as, 

"  What  boots  it  thee  to  fly  from  pole  to  pole, 
Hang  o'er  the  earth,  and  with  the  planets  roll  ? 
What  boots  (    )  thro  space's  farthercst  bourns  to  roam, 
Jf  thou,  O  man,  a  stranger  art  at  home  ?" — Grainger. 

"  If  love  had  booted  care  or  cost." 


•252 


ON  CONTRACTIONS. 


A  man  exchanged  his  house  in  the  city  for  a  farnn,  and 
received  fifty  dollars  to  loot;  to  add  to  his  property,  and 
make  the  exchange  equal. 

Let  presents  the  same  construction  in  form  and  meaning 
as  hui^  for  it  is  derived  from  two  radicals  of  opposite  signi- 
fications. It  means  sometimes  to  permit  or  allow ;  as,  let 
me  go  ;  let  me  have  it ;  and  to  hinder  or  prevent ;  as,  "  I 
proposed  to  come  unto  you,  hut  (add  this  fact)  I  was  let 
hitherto." — Rom.  1  :  13.  "He  who  now  letteth,  will  let 
until  he  be  taken  out  of  the  way." — 2  Thess.  2  :  7. 

And  is  a  past  participle  signifying  added^  one-edf  joined. 
It  was  formerl}'  placed  after  the  words ;  as,  "  James,  John, 
David,  and,  {united  to.gether-ed,)  go  to  school."  We  now 
place  it  before  the  last  word. 

Tho,  altho,  yet.  Tho  (admit,  allow,  the  fact)  he  slay 
me,  yet  (get,  have,  know,  the  fact)  I  will  trust  in  him."  Yes 
is  from  the  same  word  as  yet.  It  means  get  or  Jiave  my 
consent  to  the  question  asked.  Nay  is  the  opposite  of  yes, 
ne-aye,  nay,  no.    The  ayes  and  7ioes  were  called  for. 

I  can  pursue  this  matter  no  farther.  The  limits  assigned 
me  have  been  overrun  already.  What  light  may  have  been 
afforded  you  in  relation  to  these  words,  will  enable  you  to 
discover  that  they  have  meaning  which  must  be  learned  be- 
fore they  can  be  explained  correctly  ;  that  done,  all  diffi- 
culty is  removed. 

Interjections  deserve  no  attention.  They  form  no  part 
of  language,  but  may  be  used  by  beasts  and  birds  as  well 
as  by  men.  They  are  indistinct  utterances  of  emotions, 
which  come  not  within  the  range  of  human  speech. 


